Chapter 8 No.8

Globes and Globe Makers of the Third Quarter of the Sixteenth Century

Revival of interest in globe making in Italy.-Fran?ois De Mongenet of France and the reprint of his globe maps in Italy.-Gore map of Antonius Florianus.-Globe records left by Alessandro Piccolomini.-Ruscelli's directions for globe construction.-Reference to the work of Sanuto and Gonzaga.-Armillary sphere of Volpaja.-Excellent workmanship in the celestial-terrestrial globe of Christian Heyden.-Metal globes of Johannes Praetorius.-Vasari's reference to the work of Ignazio Danti.-The iron globe of Francisco Basso.-Armillary sphere of Giovanni Barrocci.-The work of Hieronymo de Boncompagni.-Emanuele Filiberto.-Anonymous globe of 1575.-Laurentian armillary spheres.-Small globes of the Biblioteca Nationale of Florence.-Mario Cartaro.

AMONG those interested in map and globe making, in the third quarter of the sixteenth century, none seems to have surpassed the Italians. In the art of map engraving they attained to a high degree of merit, and much of the finest work of the middle of the century is the product of the peninsula. With few exceptions it is the Italians who hold the field in this line of scientific activity. There can undoubtedly be traced here the influence of Mercator, but there appear to have been not a few who worked on what might be called independent lines. The interest of illustrious personages in the construction and the possession of globes prompted activity in this field. While the number extant, of those manufactured in this period, is not large, there are not a few references in letters and in scientific works assuring us of the construction of many which cannot now be traced.

We may call attention first to Fran?ois De Mongenet, who appears to have been a native of Franche-Comté and well known in his day as a globe maker. He was, however, quite forgotten until a few years since, when a copy each of his terrestrial and celestial globe gores was purchased by the antiquarian Rosenthal of Munich,290 and sold to Mr. Kalbfleisch of New York, from whose collection they passed into the possession of the New York Public Library. Since this discovery of De Mongenet's interesting work, a number of copies of the same or of subsequent editions have come to light, both of the terrestrial and of the celestial globe, some of which copies are mounted, some remain unmounted, some are of his first edition of the year 1552, others are of the second edition, undated, somewhat altered, and printed in Italy. All of his globes are of small size, having each a diameter of about 85 mm.

De Mongenet was born at Vesoul in France, and in the university of his town he studied medicine, mathematics, and probably geography or cosmography. There seems to be but little known concerning the family to which Fran?ois belonged, but such details as it was possible to gather Marcel brought together in a carefully prepared paper.291 This author thinks it probable that he could be counted among the circle of learned and distinguished men whom Granvella was accustomed to bring together in his palace at Besan?on on frequent occasions during the five years he passed in that city after he had given over his administration of the Netherlands. If true, there may here be found a connecting link between De Mongenet and Mercator, remembering that the latter dedicated his globe of 1541 to the father of the distinguished cardinal statesman.292 The suggestion of Mercator's influence on De Mongenet appears quite evident on a comparison of the outlines of their globe maps.

The Lenox copy of the terrestrial gores (Fig. 63) is dedicated to "Eximio Viro: D:I:P: A Monte Maiore," while the celestial gores (Fig. 64) carry the dedication "Eximio Viro D. Gabrieli a Tiesbach." Marcel is of the opinion that the dedication of the first to "Monte Maiore" refers to a prelate of the illustrious house of Granmont, whose name in the sixteenth century was often spelled Grandmont, and that Gabrieli Tiesbach (Diesbach) belonged to a family of Besan?on, originally from Freiburg, and that he was a knight of St. George. The author and date legend of the first reads "Faciebat Franciscus De Mongenet anno 1552," while that of the second reads "Elaborabat Franciscus De Mongenet. Anno 1552." The gores of each map as printed measure from pole to pole 13.7 cm., the length of the equatorial line being 27.5 cm. Around each set there is a narrow black border. A zodiacal circle is likewise printed on the first sheet 5 cm. in width, and of sufficient length to encompass the gores when mounted, being divided into twelve parts, in which, in regular order, are the figures of the twelve zodiacal constellations. With but few exceptions the several inscriptions are in small capitals, and are well executed.

Fig. 63. Terrestrial Globe Gores of Fran?ois de Mongenet, 1552.

Fig. 64. Celestial Globe Gores of Fran?ois de Mongenet, 1552.

The draughtsmanship which the terrestrial map exhibits in all parts, as well as that exhibited by the celestial, displays skill of very considerable merit. The general outline of the New World's coasts is quite as well done as on any of the maps of the day, the Pacific coast line of North America sweeping in a great curve northward and northeastward, while a great broad stretch of ocean separates the continent from Asia. In North America we find only the inscriptions "Hispania maior" and "baccalea." South America bears the inscription "America," so extended as to cover the continent. The names of geographical localities are comparatively few, the size of the globe making it impossible to insert many details.

On a second pair of De Mongenet's globes, referred to by Marcel, the dedications and inscriptions differ slightly from those given above. On the terrestrial gores we find "Illustr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A. Bauma Arch. Bis.," and the signature, "Elaborabat Francis. De Mongenet. V. E. V." On the celestial gores we read "Illustr. Ac Rever. D. D. CL. A. Bauma Arch. Bis. E. V.," the signature "Elaborabat Franciscus De. Mongenet. V.," and the privilege "Cum privilegio Pont. Max. Sqe. Ven." Citing again Marcel's opinion, the Claudio de la Baume referred to was Archbishop of Besan?on, and the letter "V" placed after the name of the globe maker doubtless refers to Vesoul, his birthplace; the letters "E. V." may stand either for "Excusum Venetiis," indicating the city in which the work was done, or for "Enea Vico," the name of the actual engraver of the gores, who is known as having been at that time an engraver of medals, being now especially remembered for his medals of the first twelve Emperors of Rome.293

The gores of the first edition were printed from engraved wooden blocks; the second were printed from engraved copper plates which exhibit a very superior workmanship, and it is to be noted that many more names appear on the terrestrial gores than on those of the first edition. Ruscelli, in his edition of Ptolemy of 1561, makes mention of "a little globe, published lately by Francesco Mongonetto Borgonone,"294 which allusion would seem to indicate a reference to the second edition and to its issue near 1561. Although this second edition contains more names than does the first, it gives little indication that the author had knowledge of discoveries subsequent to the first edition. Like Mercator he represents North America as separated from Asia, as before noted, by a wide expanse of ocean, to which no name has been given, and like Mercator he lays down a large austral continent. His globes could hardly have been received with as much favor as were those by his Flemish contemporary, since they were so small as to appear like mere playthings.

Of the first edition, other than those gores to be found in the New York Public Library, a set of the terrestrial and the celestial gores is in the British Museum, and of the terrestrial in the Germanisches Nationalmuseum of Nürnberg.

Of the second edition, copies of the unmounted gores may be found in the Bibliothèque Nationale, in the British Museum, in the private library of Prince Trivulzio of Milan. A mounted pair of the second edition may be found in the Osservatorio Astronomico of Rome (Fig. 65), and in addition a second example of the celestial globe, which is described as having excellent mountings of brass, so arranged as to make possible a revolution of the globe both on an equatorial axis and an axis of the ecliptic. Its horizon circle is supported by two brass semicircles, the whole resting on four wooden columns of modern construction, and these in turn resting on representations of lion's paws in bronze. An example of the mounted terrestrial globe is said to belong to the collection of Sr. Bazolle of Belluno, which example once belonged to the Counts of Pilloni.

Fig. 65. Globes of Fran?ois de Mongenet, 1560, and of Gian Francesco Costa, 1784.

Attention has been called to the peculiar gore map of Santa Cruz,295 and to the fact that his method of construction seems not to have won favor. We, however, find among the map makers of Italy, in the period of which we are now speaking, one Antonius Florianus,296 who, if not copying the plan of Santa Cruz, followed closely his scheme. His map, of which numerous copies are known (Fig. 66), seems to have been prepared for mounting on a ball, although no such mounted example can now be located. With the poles as centers, and with a radius equal to one quarter of the circumference of the sphere he proposed to construct, he drew his equatorial circles, which thus gave him two hemispheres, respectively, a northern and a southern; in the same manner he drew his parallels at intervals of ten degrees, using for each the common polar centers. In each of the hemispheres he drew thirty-six sectors, each sector being made to represent ten degrees of longitude, and they were so shaped mathematically that their combined width at the equator would equal the circumference of the sphere of which the selected radius, referred to above, represented one quarter of that circumference. When prepared for mounting, the vacant space between the several sectors could be cut away, leaving the thirty-six engraved sectors, on which the world map appeared, to be pasted on the surface of the sphere. The scheme which Florianus devised was practically that employed by Werner in his equivalent cordiform projection, and likewise that of Finaeus and Mercator.297

Fig. 66. Globe Gores of Antonius Florianus, 1555.

It was the eighteenth of January, in the year 1555, that Florianus obtained a copyright from the Venetian senate for his map,298 but it is probable he died before the map appeared in print, since there is evidence of incompleteness in the known copies. In the spaces, with artistic borders, which had been designed for inscriptions, nothing appears, and in but two of the four cartouches evidently intended for portraits do such portraits appear, viz., that of Ptolemy and of the author himself.

The geographical outlines of the map closely resemble those of De Mongenet, as well as those of Mercator. North America is given practically the same shape. The great expanse of ocean lying between this continent and Asia is called "Oceanus orientalis indicus," and midway between the continents, in latitude 45 degrees, is "Sipango." North America is called "Americae," also "Hispania maior," while South America is likewise called "Americae." The great austral land is represented but is unnamed. The whole is indeed a fine example of Italian copper engraving.

Numerous copies of Florianus' map are known. It usually appears in the Lafreri collection, and Fiorini notes that copies may be found in the Archivo di State of Turin, in the Marciana of Venice, in the Biblioteca Vittorio Emanuele of Rome, in the Biblioteca Comunale of Treviso, in the private library of Professor Marinelli of Florence, in the British Museum, in the private library of Nordenski?ld. To the above may be added the New York Public Library, the Library of Congress, and the Harvard Library, which likewise possess copies.

Among the numerous references appearing here and there in the literature of Italy, assuring us of the interest in that country in globe construction, reference may be made to the record left by Alessandro Piccolomini, a native of Siena, and author of a work on the extent of the land and water,299 who, in the preparation of his work, made extensive study of the records to be found in plane maps and globes. In his work published in Venice in the year 1558, though his dedication to M. Jacomo Cocco, Archbishop of Corfu, reads August 28, 1557, "Della mia casa di S. Giorgio, di Siena, il di XXVIII di Agosto MDLVII," he tells of several globes which it had been his privilege to examine. "I have zealously examined geographical maps, both plain and spherical, and especially those which are reputed to be most faithful, for example, among others, a solid terrestrial sphere shown me by Cardinal Viseo.300 Another I saw at the home of the Cardinal of Carpi,301 exhibiting mountain elevations in a new and excellent manner, and still another much larger kept at present at the home of Cardinal of Urbino.302 There is also a globe having a diameter of about an arm's length, which I saw two years since at the home of the Archbishop of Corfu, and still another I have recently seen about the same size or about one arm's length in diameter, which had been presented to His Excellency the Duke of Paliano." He adds that he had made careful geographical computations in his investigations, employing the last-named sphere. As to his method of procedure in his studies he states that "first of all having placed before me a solid sphere of about three feet in diameter, the most exact I have been able to find among those referred to above, namely, the one with the equinoctial circle and with the meridian passing through the Canaries of the Fortunate islands where Ptolemy located the prime meridian, I have divided it into four equal parts-two northern and two southern." It seems probable that the globe here referred to is that which he stated belonged to the Cardinal of Urbino, and which he noted was larger than was that belonging to Cardinal Viseo or to the Cardinal of Carpi, the diameter of which he stated to be an arm's length. Piccolomini gives us no intimation as to the authorship of the five globes he says he examined. He adds an interesting word concerning the character of the globe of Cardinal Carpi, seeming to imply that it was not a printed globe, since it represented "mountain elevations." We perhaps are justified, says Fiorini, in concluding from this and other evidence that the maps on these globes were not printed, since they were of very large size, and we know that Mercator's globes 41 cm. in diameter were then considered to have special value because larger than others constructed in a similar manner, that is, having their maps engraved or printed.

We may here again refer to Ruscelli's directions for globe construction,303 to which he added certain suggestions for globe adornment, that they might appeal to princes and nobles. "Globes of copper, bronze or silver," he says, "such as princes would desire to possess, to be fine, durable and rare should be plated, that is, the circles, the letters, the outlines of the countries should first be engraved and then there should be added gold or silver plating." "A generous prince," he adds, "could have them made in Asimino or Tausia style, as they say, that is, have the copper surface engraved, and the grooves filled with silver or gold thread. By forcing this in the work can be made very strong." He states in one of his chapters that globes so constructed are usually small, but he adds that he had seen globes three and a half palms in diameter, such as that sent to him by Zurelio Porcelaga. Of this last he speaks in words of praise, passing on to refer to two large ones then under construction in Venice. "One of these," he says, "is of copper being made by Giulio Sanuto, which it is hoped will be one of the best as one of the most beautiful of any constructed up to the present time." The implication seems to be, from the words of Ruscelli, that at least some part of the printing was to be made directly on the surface of the sphere. Further information given by Ruscelli touching Sanuto and Gonzaga in this connection is here of interest. He states "besides the fact that Giulio Sanuto is very skilful in drawing and engraving, especially in geographical maps of the world and its parts, he is, in this task, being aided by Livio Sanuto,304 a Venetian nobleman, his brother, among whose many good qualities he possesses to a degree above the ordinary, are his attainments in the profession of geography. Both are giving so much attention to this globe that it is expected, in both matter and form, it will be perfect. Another globe three arm's length in diameter has, since last year, been begun by Curtio Gonzaga, which he intends shall contain all of those things that Taisnero has included in his globe as well as many other things that the said gentleman intends to add, hoping to make one of the most beautiful and perfect spheres to be seen for many years to come. This can easily be believed, for he will do everything himself, and as the greater diligence will thus be exercised we will have all of the advantages of his great knowledge of geography, to which subject as ever, he is giving all of his attention, and the advantage of his great skill in lettering and designing."305

Ruscelli maintained that globes are preferable to ordinary maps in geographical studies, stating that "although maps of three or four arm's length and width are to be found they are not numerous and are not of great value, and furthermore we have globes, which, in extent of space exhibited, surpass them. Granting that some Princes and certain others do have maps very large, as for example, such as Pope Paul II had made for the palace of S. Marco in Rome, there are also Princes and private persons who have globes which in size much surpass the plane maps that I have ever seen or heard of." "Until a few years since no one knew how to print such globes, and all were made with pen and brush, ... later geniuses have found a way for printing globe maps very accurately, which, in a wonderful way they can place over the surface of a sphere; a way has also been found for making the spheres round and exact, and a method for computing measurements for the coverings to fit the sphere, and for the construction of such other things as belong thereto."306

The Volpaja family of Florence achieved considerable distinction in the late fifteenth and in the sixteenth century, through those members who were interested in the construction of astronomical instruments and particularly in armillary spheres. Vasari tells us that "in the chapel of Santa Trinita, in fresco, is a picture of the Magnificent Lorenzo de' Medici, father of Pope Leo X.... In the same picture is Lorenzo della Volpaja, a most excellent master in the art of making watches, and a distinguished astrologer, by whom a most beautiful clock was made for Lorenzo de' Medici, which the most illustrious Duke Cosimo now has in his palace, and wherein all of the movements of the planets are perpetually shown by means of wheels, a very rare thing, and the first that was made in that manner."307

At the time of its founding there came to the Museo di Strumenti Antichi di Astronomia e di Fisica of Florence a fine armillary sphere inscribed "Hieronimus Camilli Vulpariae Florent: fe: 1557." It is of gilded metal, having five spheres or rings ranging from 60 to 75 mm. in diameter, and in addition eighteen circles, including polar, tropical, and equatorial circles with meridian and horizon, the latter having a diameter of 144 mm. Further information recorded by Fiorini tells us that it is mounted on a wooden base.308 On the equatorial circle of the smallest sphere is engraved "Deferens Augiem," on the next, "Deferens Epiciculum," on the third, "Deferens Augiem," on the fourth, "Deferens Dragonem." The fifth sphere is composed of six large circles and four small ones. The circles which represent the meridians, the equator, the ecliptic, and the horizon are graduated, while on the ecliptic appear the names of the twelve zodiacal constellations, and on the horizon the names of the principal winds or directions. This globe is referred to as one of special interest because of its peculiar and somewhat complicated construction; it is mounted on a wooden base, which is more modern than the globe proper, and in many parts gives evidence of restoration.

In the same museum there is a second armillary sphere constructed by a member of the Volpaja family, perhaps by the same one who constructed the preceding. It is inscribed "Hieronimus Vulpariae Florentius Fe. A.D.MDLXIIII" and was a gift to the museum by the Grand Duke Leopold I. The diameter of its horizon circle, including the attached parts, is 41 cm., and its height, including its base, 76 cm. It has been described as follows: "An armillary sphere, the armillae of which are of gilded brass. The small globe within the circles representing the earth is of the clearest crystal. The horizon is of gilded brass and rests on a branched support ornamented with human heads in relief. The lower part of the branches is attached to a base resting on three lion's paws. The branches, the heads, the base, and the paws are all of brass. In the northern and southern sections of the horizon there are attachments containing receptacles for holding the magnetic needle, but which needle in both places is wanting. The equator, the tropics, and the polar circles are not zones but are triangular prisms bent in the form of circles. Furthermore a part of the ecliptic, that is to say, one of its zones, is of gilded brass and is graduated, and shows the names of the months and the signs of the zodiac. The diameter of the sphere is 12.6 pollici (inches?)."309

There is to be found in the Mathematical Salon of Dresden a fine example of the work of Christian Heyden (1525-1576), son of a rector of the St. Sebaldus School of Nürnberg. Doppelmayr310 tells us that after years of study in Leipzig and Wittenberg, he returned to his native city, became interested in making mathematical instruments, and in 1564 he was appointed to a professorship of mathematics in the famous Nürnberg gymnasium. His biographer does not refer to his activity as a globe maker, but tells us that about the year 1570 he constructed for the Emperor Maximilian II a mechanical device for illustrating the movement of the sun and the moon, which instrument, he notes, especially interested the noted Frenchman, Petrus Ramus, who carefully examined it on the occasion of a visit to Nürnberg. The Dresden example of his work (Fig. 67), the only example known, consists of a brass celestial globe encased in a covering of brass, on the surface of which is engraved a terrestrial map. It has a diameter of 72 cm., the whole being furnished with a horizon, a meridian, and an hour circle. This is indeed a choice specimen of a sixteenth-century engraved metal globe, of which we have numerous examples, but it is rather an ornamental piece than one of great scientific value.

Fig. 67. Globe of Christian Heyden, 1560.

Doppelmayr likewise gives us a brief biographical note referring to one Johannes Praetorius, a globe maker, born at Joachimsthal in the year 1537.311 After a considerable period of study, chiefly at Wittenberg, where he turned his attention to the philosophical and mathematical sciences, he took up a residence in Nürnberg in the year 1562. Here he became interested in the construction of mechanical and astronomical instruments, and soon won the favor of the Emperor Maximilian II, which favor he enjoyed to the end of that Emperor's reign. It was about the year 1576 that he became a professor of mathematics at Altdorf, where he died in the year 1616. Doppelmayr refers to a number of the mathematical and astronomical instruments constructed by him, noting that in the year 1566 he completed two globes of metal richly gilded, each having a diameter of 11? inches, that each was furnished with an hour circle, a movable quadrant and semicircles, and that a compass was set in the base of each. We learn also from the same biographer that in the year 1568 he completed a brass astrolabe having a diameter of "one schuh" (foot?), three and one half inches, and that it was supplied with all parts essential to a complete apparatus of its character. We are further informed that shortly after the beginning of his career in Altdorf he undertook the construction of a large celestial globe of wood and paper, having a diameter of four Nürnberg feet, that he was assisted in this work by the artist and draughtsman, Christopher Heinrichs, and that on the surface of the sphere one thousand six hundred and fifty stars were indicated with appropriate accompanying inscriptions.

Two pairs of Praetorius' globes are now known, one pair in the Mathematical Salon of Dresden (Fig. 68),312 and the other in the Germanisches National Museum of Nürnberg. These globes are of brass, each having a diameter of 28 cm.; each is supplied with meridian, horizon, and hour circles and rests on a tripod base. They are richly engraved pieces, the terrestrial example being remarkably well preserved, the celestial being slightly injured, through rubbing which has removed parts of certain figures of the constellations.

Fig. 68. Globe of Johannes Praetorius, 1566.

Among those Italians who, in the sixteenth century, acquired well-merited fame as globe makers may be mentioned Ignazio Danti (1536-1586),313 known as Pellegrino before he entered the order of the preaching friars in his nineteenth year. The name Danti appears to have been given him chiefly on account of his great learning, particularly in the field of mathematics and astronomy. In the same branches of science his father had achieved distinction, and likewise his grandfather, Vicenzo de Rinaldi, who, in the year 1571, issued a translation of the 'Sfera' of Sacrobosco, and who constructed, as we are told, an astrolabe and an armillary sphere.314 It seems to have been early in the year 1563 that Danti was called to Florence by Duke Cosimo for the purpose of constructing, under his patronage, nautical and astronomical instruments and geographical maps. Of his work which is still known to us there may be first mentioned an astronomical quadrant placed on the fa?ade of the church of Santa Maria Novella, and an equinoctial armilla placed within the same church. We have first mention in Vasari's 'Lives' of the globe and map work of his which especially concerns us here. It is an interesting account of his activity in this field, an account worthy of citation. "Fra Ignazio Danti is very learned in cosmography and a man of distinguished ability in letters, in so much that the Duke Cosimo has committed to his care a work than which none more perfect in design, or more important in the results to be expected from it, has ever been executed in that kind. His excellency has caused a room of considerable extent to be prepared on the second floor of his palace, as a continuation of, and an addition to the guardaroba; around this room he has had cabinets arranged seven braccia high, and richly carved in walnut wood, intending to place within them the most valuable and beautiful works of art in his possession; and on the doors of the same he has caused fifty-seven pictures, about two braccia in height and of proportionate width, to be painted in oil on wood in the manner of miniatures. The subjects delineated are the Ptolemaic Tables, measured by Don Ignazio with the most exact perfection, and corrected according to the latest authorities; sea-charts of the utmost accuracy are added, the scale and the degrees being adjusted with all possible care, and all having the ancient, as well as the modern, names; the division made of these works being as follows. At the principal entrance into the room are seen four pictures executed on the sides of the cabinets, and representing in perspective the halves of four spheres, those below showing the earth, and those above the heavens with all their signs and celestial figures. Proceeding toward the right we have all Europe depicted in fourteen compartments, the pictures succeeding each other to the center of the wall which is at the head of the room, and opposite to the principal door, that namely whereon is placed the horologue with its wheels, and the daily motions made by the planets in their spheres; I mean that so much renowned clock made by the Florentine Lorenzo della Volpaja. Above the compartments representing Europe, are those of Africa in eleven divisions; these extend to the horologue itself, beyond which and on the lower part is Asia, which occupies a consecutive range of four compartments, extending to the principal door. There are besides the West Indies, which commence from the clock, and continue to the principal door; the whole series forming the fifty-seven divisions before mentioned. On the lower part of the walls and immediately beneath the geographical delineations, in an equal number of compartments will be the various plants and animals produced by the respective countries, all depicted from nature. Over the cornice of the said cabinets, which completes the decorations, there are to be niches dividing the pictures, and in these will be placed certain antique busts in marble, representing the Emperors and Princes by whom these lands have been possessed, so far as those portraits are known to exist or can be procured. The ceiling is entirely in carved wood-work, and within the compartments of the same are twelve large pictures, in each of which are to be four celestial signs, making in the whole forty-eight; the figures are to be but little less than life size, each accompanied by its stars. On the walls beneath are three hundred portraits of distinguished persons belonging to the last five centuries, or somewhat more; they are painted in oil; but, that I may not make too long a story, I refer the mention of their names to the tables of my work. All have frames of similar size, very richly carved in oak, and producing an exceedingly fine effect."

"In the two pictures occupying the center of the ceiling, each of which is four braccia wide, are the celestial signs; these can be thrown back by means which cannot be perceived; and in a space representing the concave are to be two large spheres, one representing the earth: this will be made to descend by a concealed windlass, and will then be balanced on a support adequate to that purpose, so that when fixed, all the pictures and the maps on the cabinet will be reflected therein, each part being thus readily found on the sphere. On the other globe the forty-eight celestial signs will be arranged, in such sort that all the operations of the astrolabe may be performed most perfectly by the aid thereof. The plan of this work has proceeded from the Duke Cosimo, who desired to have all these parts of the earth and heaven brought for once fairly together in their just positions, exactly and without errors, to the end that they might be observed and measured, either apart or all together, as might be desired by those who study and delight in this most beautiful science. I have therefore thought myself bound to make a memorial of the same in this place, for the sake of Fra Ignazio; and that his ability, with the magnificence of that great Prince, who has judged us worthy to enjoy the benefits of so honorable a labor, may be made known to all the world."315

Danti must have undertaken this great work shortly after his arrival in Florence, since one of his maps, to which Vasari refers, is dated 1563, and it appears that the terrestrial globe must have been finished by 1567, since the general Depositaria of that year, as cited by Badia, records that twenty lire were paid to the gold-leaf maker, Taddeo di Francesco, for the five hundred leaves of gold to be used for the globe, and there is no succeeding entry referring to this particular piece of work.316 We know that he never completed the task which had been assigned to him. Duke Cosimo's death occurred in the year 1575, and his son and successor, Francesco, manifested but little interest in furthering the cause of science. It was perhaps at the instance of Francesco that the general of the Dominican Order directed Danti to leave Florence, and he passed the remainder of his days in Bologna. Apparently but thirty of the fifty-seven maps which were to be made by Danti were completed at the time of his dismissal, and only the terrestrial globe. As evidence that he did not construct the celestial globe, Badia cites a letter written by Antonio Lupicini to the Grand Duke Ferdinand, dated October 27, 1587. After reference to certain great works planned by Cosimo in the last years of his life, such as those referred to by Vasari, he adds that "when it seemed that nothing else was to be seen in the room, at a certain sign these historical representations disappeared and the cosmography of the whole mechanism, constructed after the manner of Ptolemy, was uncovered; in doing so they opened the ceiling and let down the representations of the planets, resting them on a stand which came out of the floor, and from the floor also appeared a terrestrial and a celestial globe each three and a half braccia in diameter, one of which had been made by Fra Ignazio, and the model of which I myself have."317 The terrestrial globe, at first placed in the room for which it was intended, was later removed to the gallery, where on account of much handling it was greatly injured, and in the year 1595 the cosmographer, Antonio Santucci, was entrusted with its restoration.318 Admired as it has been for more than three hundred years, on account of its size and excellent workmanship, repeatedly handled through all these years by careless visitors, a second restoration was undertaken a few years since by Ferdinando Meucci, director of the museum to which it finally passed. Meucci directed this work with great care, studying minutely the construction of the globe under the opportunity thus offered. Fiorini, citing information especially given him by Meucci,319 says that the diameter of this globe is 2.04 m.; that the ball is of wood having a papier-maché covering, protected without by a wrapping of cord and metal plates, and that it is very substantially braced within. Danti himself in describing the construction of the globe, on receiving an order for a similar one, says that "the surface of this globe is thirty-six square braccia and it is supported within by an iron frame, as a globe of this size would not stand without bracing; it represents a new invention by means of which, though large, it can be moved in every direction with a single finger, and its pole can be easily elevated or depressed."320 These Medici globes, it seems, attracted much attention, and not alone in Italy. Pontanus, in the preface of his edition of Hues' 'Tractatus de Globis,' after a reference to the celestial globe of Tycho Brahe, six feet in diameter, adds that Ferdinand I of Tuscany possessed two globes, one terrestrial and the other an armillary sphere with circles and orbs, and that these globes were constructed by the same hand.321 This last statement we now know to be an error, since the terrestrial globe alone was the work of Ignazio Danti, the armillary sphere being the work of Antonio Santucci.

The Biblioteca Nationale of Turin possesses a unique and highly interesting globe signed "Franciscus Bassus Mediolanensis feccit 1570," called Basso in his day, although his name appears to have been Francesco Pelliccioni or Pilizzoni.322 In this we have one of the finest examples of the style of constructing and ornamenting metal globes, described by Ruscelli as agemina, in which gold and silver threads and plates are forced into the engraved outlines on the surface of the ball.

The globe, a hollow iron sphere about 56 cm. in diameter, is in an excellent state of preservation. The engraved parallels and meridians are indicated at intervals of ten degrees, the prime meridian passing through the Canary Islands. It has thus been described by the librarian, Francesco Carta:323 "The parts of the globe in gold are the equator, the tropics, the polar circles and many mountain chains; the known and the unknown polar regions are flaked with gold. In gold are the crowns which designate the several kingdoms, the small islands and the graduated prime meridian. In gold and silver are the ships which sail the seas, the smaller being entirely of gold. The ecliptic, the meridians excepting the prime meridian, the parallels, the majority of the mountain chains of the unknown lands, the rivers, as well as the outlines of the lands and the seas. On the graduated horizon circle are the Latin names of the winds in silver capital letters. These are the twelve winds of Timostene. A graduated metal meridian passes through the poles and is attached to the rational horizon which is supported by four small pyramidal columns having quadrangular bases. At the top, and fastened to the framework of the globe with a silver ribbon, is a silver heart having extended wings, the feathers of which are of gold and silver. From this heart rises a small gilded design representing an olive branch, having leaves of gold. From the lower part of the support hang silver ribbons flaked with gold." Practically all inscriptions are in silver capital letters, the majority being in Latin, but a few are in Italian and in Spanish. To North America which is connected with Asia, in accord with the idea so prevalent in the second quarter of the century, is given the name "Asia magna quae India borealis," and to South America the name "America Nova." In addition to the above inscriptions we find such as "Hispania Major," "G. d. Anian," "Oceanus Indicus," "Sinus Magnus Aphricae." In Brazil is the inscription, "His Leoni Copia." The inscription "Terra Australis recenter inventa anno 1499, sed nondum plene cognita terra," closely resembles an inscription similarly placed on the world map of Orontius Finaeus of 1531, which reads "Terra Australis recenter inventa sed nondum plene cognita."324 It does not appear that great scientific value attaches to this globe, since there clearly was no attempt to produce a terrestrial map to date. It, however, is a most interesting example of globe construction in a day when globes were so much in favor.

The Lancisiana Biblioteca of Rome possesses an artistically constructed armillary sphere, apparently the work of Giovanni Maria Barrocci, who, in the second half of the sixteenth century, achieved distinction as a maker of watches and of mathematical instruments. Fiorini gives reason for thinking this to be of about the year 1570, as well as reason for attributing the work to Barrocci,325 finding it in an epitaph of a member of the family in which there is allusion to the construction of a celestial globe for Pope Pius V.

Two globes, one celestial attributed to Hieronymo de Boncompagni, and one terrestrial attributed to Emanuele Filiberto and probably constructed about the year 1570, are briefly referred to by Fiorini as belonging to the Osservatorio del Collegio Romano.326 Further reference to these globes has not been obtainable, there being no mention of the same in a communication received by the author from this observatory.

The Biblioteca Nationale Vittorio Emanuele of Rome possesses two remarkably fine manuscript globes, a terrestrial and a celestial, the latter bearing the inscription "Anno Jobel327 1575 ad que supputatae sunt stellae." "In the Jubilee year for which the positions of the stars have been computed." While not giving with certainty the exact date of their construction, it seems that it could not have been later than that given in the legend. The globes bear the coat of arms of the Jesuits, which may only suggest that the maker was a member of that order. Each of these globes, or globe balls, is constructed of a wooden framework, covered with a preparation of plaster, over which has been added a coat of thick varnish. On the surface thus prepared the map has been drawn and painted in colors. Each has a diameter of about 70 cm., is mounted on a pyramidal base, 77 cm. in height, from which rises a rod 45 cm. in length, supporting two semicircles which serve as a direct base support for the iron horizon circle. The celestial globe has represented on its surface the equator, the tropics, the polar circles, the colures, the ecliptic, and the zodiac, and the figures representing the several constellations. These figures are very artistically painted, having their several names written in gold in the Latin language; some figures and names unfortunately are wanting by reason of injury to the surface of the globe. On the terrestrial globe the equator, the tropics, and the polar circles are represented, while but two meridians are indicated, the prime meridian passing through the Canary Islands while the other has been drawn ninety degrees from this, that is, cuts it at right angles at the poles.

The Biblioteca Laurentiana of Florence possesses four small armillary spheres, bearing neither date nor author legends.328 The larger of these has a diameter of about 32 cm., is of brass, and rests upon an artistic support composed of a group of bronze satyrs. The other three, by reason of their close resemblance, appear to be the work of the same artist. Each has a diameter of about 23 cm. and a base of brass on which stands a small bronze statue, which bears on its shoulders a globe. This globe supports the several circles composing the armillary sphere. The supporting statue in one of these is clad and is represented as wearing sandals on the feet, supposedly representing the mythical Atlas. In another of these the statue is that of a man resting on the right knee with the left hand uplifted, while in the third the statue is that of a woman resting upon the left knee, having the right hand uplifted. These globes are reported as not being in good condition, but each exhibits artistic merit of a high order.

There is likewise to be found in the Biblioteca Nationale of Florence a small celestial globe of bronze, and a celestial and terrestrial globe of silver. These globes are neither signed nor dated but are thought to belong to the period now under consideration. The bronze globe has the constellations represented in relief. It is exceedingly small, having a diameter of about 10 cm. The silver globes have diameters about half the preceding, or about 4.5 cm. They are furnished with horizon and meridian circles, and have mountings which clearly are modern. The several constellations represented on the celestial globe are exceedingly well done, as are all of the decorative figures appearing on the terrestrial globe. Geographical names are necessarily few because of the size of the globe.

Attention has been called to the references which Ruscelli makes in his 'Geografia' to globe construction.329 Notice may likewise here be called to a similar reference, though much more brief, made by Francesco Maurolico, a native of Messina, and often referred to as the new Archimedes, because of his great fame acquired in the field of mathematics and astronomy. In his work, published in the year 1575,330 he devoted part of one chapter to the subject "De sphaera solida," describing the construction of a celestial globe, and the use of the same. We have no evidence that he was ever engaged in the construction of such instruments as aids in the study of his science.

Lastly, in this chapter, mention may be made of the work of Mario Cartaro. It appears that with his work that of the Italian globe makers of the century practically came to a close; the names of but two or three appear in the last quarter.

Cartaro first achieved distinction as a designer and engraver in Rome, where he issued a work containing the portraits of the first twenty-four Roman Emperors.331 From Rome it appears that he went to Naples, where he continued to reside until the time of his death. That he was much favored in Naples is attested by the fact that he was given a commission to design or to represent all places and plants in the kingdom, and to receive for the same "ten scudi per month."332 It is probable that as a result of this commission we have that fine manuscript atlas of thirteen maps now belonging to the Biblioteca Nationale of Naples, representing the provinces of the kingdom and signed "M. Cartaro F. 1613."333 This manuscript gives striking evidence of his cartographical ability. The manuscript is of paper, its first map representing the ancient kingdom of Naples, on which is placed the Spanish coat of arms. The remaining twelve represent the following named provinces: Terra di Lavorro, Principato Citra, Principato Ultra, Basilicata, Calabria Citra, Calabria Ultra, Terra d'Otranto, Terra di Bari, Capitanata, Contado di Molise, Abruzzo Citra, Abruzzo Ultra.

Cartaro's globes are of solid wood about 16 cm. in diameter, the balls being covered with engraved gore maps. On his celestial globes appears the inscription, "Marius Cartarus Viterbensis Autor incidebat Romae c? priv. 1577." The twelve or rather twenty-four half gores, since they are cut on the line of the ecliptic, are copper engraved. The equator, the tropics, the polar circles, and the colures are represented, the ecliptic and the equator being graduated, the degrees being alternately colored red and yellow. The several constellations are well drawn, are colored yellow with shading, and stand out prominently against a blue background representing the sky. His terrestrial globes bear the inscription "Marius Cartarus Viterbensis Autor incidebat Romae MDLXXVII cum privilegio," the gores being divided, as in the preceding, into twenty-four. Meridians and parallels are drawn at intervals of fifteen degrees, alternate degrees being colored red and yellow, the prime meridian passing through the Canary Islands and being graduated. In the Osservatorio del Collegio Romano may be found two copies of the celestial and one example of the terrestrial globe, one of the former once belonging to the astronomer, Virgilio Spada, and later to the Biblioteca Vallicelliana. Neither of these globes is well preserved, the original mountings are wanting, and each rests on a base of wood which has been merely designed to serve as a support.

A copy of the celestial globe may be found in the Museo di Strumenti Antichi of Florence, which was presented to the museum by the Grand Duke Leopold I. This example is reported to be in good condition, being mounted on a base of wood, and having a horizon and a meridian circle of wood, both of which are graduated. On the horizon appear the names of the eight principal winds, with representations of the wind heads having distended cheeks.

A fairly well-preserved example of the terrestrial globe (Fig. 69) was recently purchased by Mr. Reed of New York City, by whose courteous permission it was photographed for reproduction in this work. It has a single pedestal base which is gilded, is furnished with horizon and meridian circles, the former being supported by two semicircles, which in turn rest on the pedestal base. Practically all of the inscriptions are in capitals, and all of the work of the engraver has been very artistically done. The outline of the New World resembles closely that given by Mercator and by Zaltiari. In North America we find interestingly represented a great lake drained by two rivers, apparently, but not accurately drawn as the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence. The southwestern part is called "Nova Spagna," Mexico is designated as "Nova Galitia"; in the northeast we find "La Nova Franza," and "Terra de Nor?beca," and in the southeast "Florida," although the peninsula is not well drawn. South America bears the name "America," so drawn as practically to cover the continent, and in addition we find "Castiglia de Loro," "Para," "Peru Provin," "Chili," and lake "Tichia," located well inland. It will be noted in the reproduction that the sphere is well shot through by the industrious book- or woodworm.

Fig. 69. Terrestrial Globe of Mario Cartaro, 1577.

NOTES

290 See his catalogue No. XLII, item 133; also catalogue No. L, item 327. Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas. Plate XL reproduces the terrestrial globe gores.

291 Marcel, G. Fran?ois De Mongenet, géographe franc-comtois. (In: Bulletin de géographie, historique et descriptive. Paris, 1889. pp. 31-40.); Günther, S. Die mathematischen Sammlung des Gesmanischen Museums zu Nürnberg. (In: Leopoldina, Heft 14, p. 110.)

292 See above, p. 129.

293 Vasari, op. cit., Vol. III, pp. 500, 512, 514.

294 Ruscelli, G. La geografia di Claudio Tolomeo Alessandrino monumente tradotta di greco in italiano. Venezia, 1561. p. 32.

295 See above, p. 122.

296 Joppi, V. Pittori e scultori. Venezia, 1881. p. 86.

297 Fiorini, M. Le projezioni delle carte geografiche. Bologna, 1881. Chap. vi, §5; same author. Le projezioni cordiformi nella Cartografia. (In: Bolletino della Società Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1889. pp. 554-579.)

298 Joppi, op. cit., pp. 71 ff.

299 The title-page reads, Della grandezza della terra et dell' acqua. Trattato di M. Alessandro Piccolomini, nuovamente mandato in luce all' Illustr. et Rev. S. Monsig. M. Jacomo Cocco Arcivescovo di Corfù. Con privilegio. In Venetia MDLVIII.

300 Cardella. Memorie storiche del Cardinali della Santa Romana Chiesa. Roma, 1792. Tom. IV, p. 233.

301 Cardella, op. cit., Tom. IV, p. 173.

302 Cardella, op. cit., Tom. IV, p. 287.

303 Ruscelli, op. cit. See that section appearing as a second part or appendix to this work titled "Espositioni et introductioni." Chap. ii.

304 Sanuto. Geografia di Livio Sanuto distinta in XII libri. Vinezia, 1588.

305 Ruscelli. Espositioni. Chap. iii.

306 Ruscelli. Geografia. pp. 58, 59.

307 Vasari, op. cit., Vol. II, p. 65.

308 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 218.

309 Inventario del Reale Gabinetto redatto nel 1776, Vol. II, n. 175.

310 Doppelmayr, op. cit., p. 75; Gerland, E. Beitr?ge zur Geschichte der Physik. (In: Leopoldina, Heft 18, p. 69.); Weidler, J. F. Historia astronomiae. Vitembergae, 1741. p. 390; Drechsler, A. Katalog der Sammlung des K?nigl.-Mathematisch-Physikalischen Salon zu Dresden. Dresden, 1874. p. 53.

311 Doppelmayr, op. cit., pp. 83-90.

312 Drechsler, op. cit., pp. 53, 54; Gerland, op. cit., p. 68.

313 Del Badia, J. Egnazio Danti cosmografo e matematico. Firenze, 1882; Marchese, R. Memorie dei più illustri pittori, scultori ed architetti Dominicani. Bologna, 1879. Vol. II, p. 357; Porena, F. La Geografia in Roma e il mappamondo Vaticano. (In: Boll. della Società Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1888. pp. 221 ff.)

314 Uzielli, G. L'epistolario Colombo-Toscanelliano e di Danti. (In: Boll. della Società Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1889. p. 836.) In this the author refers to the numerous editions of Sacrobosco translated by Rinaldi.

315 Vasari, op. cit., Vol. V, pp. 493-496.

316 Del Badia, op. cit., p. 30.

317 Del Badia, op. cit., p. 28.

318 Del Badia, op. cit., p. 31.

319 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 179.

320 Tiraboschi, G. Storia della litteratura italiana. Roma, 1873. Tom. VII, pt. I, lib. ii, p. 439.

321 Hues, R. Tractatus de globis coelesti et terrestri eorumque usu. Amstelodame, 1617. Ed. by Joannis Isaci Pontanus. See the Preface.

322 Moriggia, R. P. F. La nobilita di Milano. Milano, 1595. Lib. V, cap. xvii.

323 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 184; Kretschmer, K. Die Entdeckung Amerikas in ihrer Bedeutung für die Geschichte des Weltbildes. Berlin, 1892. p. 436, and Tav. xxix.

324 Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas, plate XLI.

325 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 220.

326 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 284.

327 The word "Jobel" is thought to mean jubilee.

328 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. pp. 497-500.

329 See above, n. 294, 303.

330 His work bears the title D. Francisci Maurolyci Abbatis Messanensis Opuscula mathematica nunc primum in lucem edita. Venetiis, 1575.

331 Gori-Gandellini, G. Notizie storiche degli intagliatori. Siena, 1771. Tom. I, p. 25.

332 Archivo Storico della Provincie Napoletane. Anno primo Napoli. 1876. p. 405.

333 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 191. See for catalogue reference Sala dei MSS. Scaffale XII, palchetto D, n. 100.

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