Chapter 7 No.7

Globes of the Second Quarter of the Sixteenth Century

Globes indicating (a) an Asiatic connection of the New World, (b) globes expressing a doubt of such Old World connection, (c) globes showing an independent position of the New World.-Franciscus Monachus.-Hakluyt's reference.-The Gilt globe.-Parmentier.-Francesco Libri.-Nancy globe.-Globes of Gemma Frisius.-Robertus de Bailly.-Sch?ner globe of 1533.-Scheipp.-Furtembach.-Paris Wooden globe.-Vopel globes.-Santa Cruz.-Hartmann gores.-Important globe of Ulpius.-Cardinal Bembo's globes.-Mercator's epoch-making activity.-Fracastro.-Ramusio's references to globes.-Gianelli.-Florence celestial globe.

AS in the first quarter of the sixteenth century, so in the second we find engraved brass and copper globes, globes with manuscript maps, and those with printed or engraved gore maps. Since the latter in this period have especially found favor, attention is more and more directed toward the shaping of the segments or gores with that mathematical nicety which, as previously stated, would admit of a perfect or almost perfect adjustment when they were applied to the surface of a prepared ball.

To the independent position of the New World as represented on the globe maps prior to 1525 attention has been called in the preceding chapter, but the idea of such independence, it may here be noted, is one contrary to that very generally though erroneously entertained by historians who have written of the period, an error doubtless in large measure due to a failure on their part to give proper heed to the record of the maps as expressing the geographical notions commonly accepted. Harrisse has well stated the case in referring to the geographical opinions of the earliest explorers, observing that the moment search began for a waterway leading from Oceanus Occidentalis to Oceanus Orientalis, that moment opinion began to become conviction that a new continental region had been found, that a New World had been discovered,198 and practically all of the early explorers had hope of finding such a waterway. It is very true that more than two hundred years passed from Columbus' day before there was positive proof of an independence of the newly found land, but the earliest map makers outlined it as if believing in its independence of an Old World or Asiatic connection.199 The so-called Bartholomew Columbus sketch maps,200 probably drawn in the first decade of the sixteenth century (Fig. 47), alone can be cited, among the maps of any particular importance in the first quarter of this century, as distinctly indicating a belief in an Asiatic connection. Attention was likewise called in the preceding chapter to the fact that toward the close of the century's first quarter the idea that a veritably independent new continent had been found was beginning to be doubted.201 This doubt seemed to follow close upon the publication of the report of Magellan's expedition.202 It indeed appears to be generally accepted that to the report of that remarkable circumnavigation, to the letters of Cortes respecting his Mexican expedition,203 and to the failure of his and of other Spanish attempts to find a strait north of the equator through which one might pass from Oceanus Occidentalis to Oceanus Orientalis,204 the changed conception of the geography of the New World was due.

Fig. 47. Bartholomew Columbus Sketch Map, 1506.

This changed conception seems to have found first expression, on a map, in a little volume prepared by Franciscus Monachus, a friar of Mechlin, about 1525. The title of this volume reads in part,205 'De orbis situ ac descriptione. ad Reuerendiss. D. archiepiscopum Panormitanum, Francisci, Monachi ordinis Franciscani, epistola sane qu? luculenta ...' 'A very excellent letter from Franciscus, a monk of the Franciscan Order, to the Most Reverend Archbishop of Palermo, touching the site and description of the world,' with a colophon reading "Excudebat Martinus Caesar, expensis honesti viri Rolandi Bollaert ..." "Martinus Caesar prepared this at the expense of the upright man Roland Bollert." Its two small woodcut maps representing the world in hemispheres, respectively the Old and the New World (Fig. 48), are of striking historical interest, while the text contains many references which are of importance for the light they cast upon the geographical opinions of the time respecting the New World. Here, as noted, the New World is first represented on a map as having distinctly an Asiatic connection, the southern continent (South America) being separated from the northern only by that narrow strait which we find so prominently represented on the Maiollo map of 1527, and there called "stretto dubitoso."206 While these hemispheres cannot themselves be referred to as a globe, they may serve to give us a general idea of the geographical representations on the globe, which, as appears probable, was at that time constructed by the author of the text. To the Ecclesiastical Prince, to whom Franciscus dedicated his little volume, information was sent concerning his globe on which he had drawn by hand a map of the world as he said, the reply to his letter containing the following statement, "Orbis globum, in quo terrae ac maria luculenter depicta sunt, una cum epistola accepimus." "We accept the globe of the world on which the land and the seas are elegantly depicted, together with the epistle."207 Being a gift it would seem reasonable to conclude that the globe was not duplicated and offered for sale and that the example referred to was therefore probably unique. The text of the 'De orbis situ ...,' as it appears, was printed because it was thought there was much contained therein that was new and not in harmony with geographical ideas hitherto expressed. The first edition was undated, nor was the second dated, but it agreed in practically all particulars with the first excepting a slight alteration in the title. A third edition was issued in the year 1565, and is still known in many copies, of which Gallois gives an excellent reprint in his biography of Orontius Finius.208 It is in the first and second editions that the hemispheres appear; they are wanting in the third, but as a substitute therefor a small globe resting on a base appears on the verso of the title-page, which in its general features may be a representation of Franciscus' globe.

Fig. 48. Hemispheres of Franciscus Monachus, 1526.

Hakluyt, in his 'Discourse on Western Planting,' alludes to "an olde excellent globe in the Queenes privie gallory at Westminster which also seemeth to be of Verarsanus makinge, havinge the coste described in Italian, which laieth oute the very selfe same streite necke of lande in latitude of 40. degrees, with the sea joynninge harde on bothe sides, as it dothe on Panama and Nombre di Dios; which would be a matter of singule importannce, yf it shoulde be true, as it is not unlikely."209 To this particular globe we do not seem to be able to find any other allusion.

In the geographical department of the Bibliothèque Nationale there may be found an exceedingly well-executed globe, neither signed nor dated, but which appears to have been constructed about the year 1528.210 It is an unmounted gilded copper sphere (Fig. 49), having a diameter of about 23 cm. Its title reads "Nova et integra universi orbs descriptio," "A new and complete description of the entire world," which, with all legends and local names, is engraved in small capitals. Based upon the description we possess of the Sch?ner globe of 1523, and upon the close resemblance of its coast outlines to those of the Weimar globe of 1533, there is reason for assigning it to the Sch?nerian school. It, however, is to be noted that the nomenclature of the northeast coast of North America is very different from that which appears on the last-mentioned globe, and that it more nearly resembles in that region the simple cordiform map of Orontius Finius of the year 1536.211 The latest geographical information which it records seems to relate to the expedition of Verrazano. In the region corresponding to the present New England, we find the legend "Terra Francesca nuper Lustrata." The Gulf of Mexico is called "Sinus S. Michaelis," and the Caribbean Sea, "Mare Herbidium." In South America are the conspicuous legends "America Inventa 1497," "Brazilio Regio," and "Terra Nova." The great Antarctic land bears the inscription "Regio Patalis." The Amazon appears as a river of considerable length, with numerous tributaries. The course of Magellan's voyage, so frequently laid down on the maps of the period, here finds record in the threadlike line which encircles the globe. As in the hemispheres of Franciscus, so here, America is laid down as a part of the Asiatic continent. The workmanship of the globe is equal to the best that one could find in the Italy, France or Germany of that day, while the few German words among the numerous Latin names, as "Baden," "Braunschweig," and "Wien," give some support for the claim that it is of German origin. A Spanish origin, as has sometimes been claimed for it, can hardly be accepted.

Fig. 49. Gilt Globe, ca. 1528.

Parmentier, a native of the famous seaport Dieppe, had in his day, as a maker of charts, a very substantial reputation. Whether one should conclude from references to him as a cartographer that he busied himself with the construction of globes cannot be definitely determined, as these references indicate that his maps were merely constructed on a projection which enabled him in some measure to represent the curved surface of the earth. Schefer, in his work 'Le discours de la navigation de Jean et Raoul Permentier,' says, "Permentier estoit bon cosmographe et géographe, et par lui ont esté composez plusieurs mappes monde en globe et en plat et plusieurs cartes marines, sur les quelles plusieurs ont navigué seurement." "Parmentier was a good cosmographer and geographer, and many maps of the world both in the form of globes and as plane maps were made by him, also numerous marine charts by means of which many sailed the seas with safety."212

Vasari gives us information concerning one Francesco Libri, member of a famous Veronese artist family, who won distinction as a globe maker in the early sixteenth century, and who apparently was most active in this field of endeavor about the year 1530. Although all trace of the globes he is said to have constructed is lost, Vasari's reference is worthy citation.

"Among other things," says that interesting, if not always accurate, Italian biographer, "he constructed a large globe of wood, being four feet in diameter; this he then covered externally with a strong glue, so that there should be no danger of crack or other injury. Now the globe or ball thus constructed was to serve as a terrestrial globe. Wherefore when it had been carefully divided and exactly measured under the direction and in the presence of Fracastro and Baroldi, both well versed in physics and distinguished as cosmographers and astrologers, it was afterward to be painted by Francesco for a Venetian gentleman, Messer Andrea Navagero, a most learned orator and poet, who intended to make a present of the same to King Francis of France, to whom he was about to be sent as ambassador from the Republic. But scarcely had Navagero arrived in France and entered on his office, when he died. The work consequently remained unfinished, which was much to be regretted since, executed by Francesco, under the guidance and with the advice and assistance of two men so distinguished as were Fracastro and Baroldi, it would doubtless have turned out a very remarkable production. It remained unfinished, however, as I have said, and what is worse, even that which had been done received considerable injury, I know not of what kind, in the absence of Francesco; yet spoiled as it was, the globe was purchased by Messer Bartolommeo Lonichi who has never been prevailed upon to give it up, although he has been frequently much entreated to do so, and offered large sums of money for it."

"Francesco had made two smaller globes before commencing the large one; and of these one is now in the possession of Mazzanti, Archdeacon of the cathedral of Verona; the other belonging to the Count Raimondo della Torre, and is now the property of his son, the Count Giovanni Battista, by whom it is very greatly valued, seeing that this also was constructed with the assistance and after measurements of Fracastro, who was a very intimate friend of Count Raimondo."213

As before noted, the exact date when Francesco constructed his globes is unknown. Vasari, however, informs us, as noted above, that the large one was constructed for Andrea Navagero, who wished to present it to the King of France, and that very shortly after his arrival in France on his special mission his death occurred, which we know to have been the eighth of May, 1529. It must therefore have been in that year that Francesco completed the construction of his globe. It would be interesting to know the geographical configuration of the New World as laid down by Fracastro and Francesco on this large globe, remembering that it was not long after the mission of Navagero to King Francis that the first Cartier expedition sailed for the western continent. We cannot be certain, as stated, of its geographical data, but it seems probable that it followed the Verrazanian type as represented, for example, in the Maiollo map of 1527, or in the Verrazano map of 1529.

The Lorraine Museum of Nancy possesses a fine globe, neither signed nor dated, but which usually is referred to as the Nancy globe (Figs. 50, 50a), and is thought to have been constructed about the year 1530.214 It is a silver ball 16 cm. in diameter, divided on the line of the equator into hemispheres, and is supported on a small statue of Atlas. The equator, the tropics, the polar circles, the zodiac, and one meridian circle passing through the western part of Asia in the Old World and through the peninsula of Florida in the New World, are represented. It is an object of interest not only for its scientific value in giving us a geographical record of the period, but it is also of interest for its fine workmanship, having its land areas gilded and its seas blue enameled, in which sea monsters and ships of artistic design appear. We have the record that in the year 1662, Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine, presented it to the church of N?tre Dame de Sion in his residence city, and that by this church it was long used as a pyx.215 There is a striking resemblance of its land configurations, and of its geographical nomenclature to that of the Gilt globe, of the Wooden globe, and of the World map of Orontius Finaeus of 1531. The New World is represented as a part of the Asiatic continent, and the central section of that region, to which we may refer as North America, is designated "Asia Orientalis" and "Asia Major." To the east of these names are numerous regional names, conspicuous among which are "Terra Francesca," "Hispania Major," and "Terra Florida." The Gulf of Mexico appears as "Mare Cathayum." Mexico bears the name "Hispania Nova," while the sea to the west is named "Mare Indicum Australe." The South American continent is called "America Nova," and the names are very numerous which have been given to the various sections, among which we find "Terra Firma," "Papagelli," "Terra Canibale," "Parias," and "Peru Provincia." The large austral land bears the name "Brasielie Regio," which name is placed southeast of Africa, and the name "Patalis Regio" appears southwest of South America.

Fig. 50. Nancy Globe, ca. 1530.

Fig. 50a. Globe of Jacob Stamfer, 1539.

Fig. 50b. Nancy Globe in Hemispheres.

Gemma Frisius (1508-1555), a native of Docum (Fig. 51), and for a number of years professor of medicine and mathematics in the University of Louvain,216 issued a little book, in the year 1530, bearing the title 'De principiis Astronomiae et Cosmographiae, deque usu globi, ab eodem editi, item de orbis divisione et insulis, rebusque nuper inventis ... Antverp, 1530.'217 It seems probable that this was issued to serve as explanatory text for a globe or globes he had constructed or was preparing to construct. In it we have one of the earliest technical yet practical explanations of the parts and uses of the globe, and a somewhat detailed statement how such instruments may be serviceably employed in cosmographical studies. On the title-page there appears the representation of a globe resting on a base having three feet, which has been thought to be a representation of his completed work.218 We are told in his 'Epistola salutatoria,' at least in an implied manner, that there were to be numerous copies of the globes, seeing that they were intended for the trade, and Roscelli's statement would lead us to believe that they had found their way into Italy. All copies, however, appear to have been lost until a few years since, when both a terrestrial and a celestial globe of Frisius' making was found in the Gymnasium Francisceum of Zerbst, to which discovery a very considerable interest and importance attaches. In a paper read before the International Congress of Americanists in 1904, Dr. W. Walter Ruge, all too briefly, describes them, from which paper the following information is taken.219

Fig. 51. Portrait of Gemma Frisius.

The terrestrial globe, he notes, is not well preserved, being in certain parts so injured as to render the inscriptions illegible; but in this fact he, however, finds a certain compensation, as these injuries are of such character as to disclose the manner of construction. The globe ball, he finds, consists of two hemispheres of papier-maché 3 mm. in thickness over which is a layer of plaster 1? mm. in thickness. On the smooth surface thus furnished the twelve gores of which the map is composed had been pasted, these gores extending from pole to pole.220 Though undated, the following inscription gives information concerning the map maker and the engravers. "Gemma Frisius Medicus ac Mathematicus ex varijs descripsit geographicorum observationibus, atque in hanc formam redegit; Gerardus Mercator Rupelmundanus coelavit cum Caspare a Myrica, cui et sumptibus permaximis et laboribus nequaquam minoribus opus constat." "Gemma Frisius, physician and mathematician, made (this globe) from the various observations of geographers, and fashioned it in this form. Gerhard Mercator of Rupelmunde with Caspar Miracus engraved (it) and expended on the work a large sum and no little labor."

Frisius appears in this legend as the maker of the map, with Mercator and Myrica as the engravers. The date of construction is not given, but it clearly does not belong to the issue of 1530 referred to above. We read, for example, along the west coast of South America such names as "Tumbes," "tangara siue s. michaelis," and "Turicarami fluvius," and find that this west coast is sketched as far as latitude 5 degrees south. S. Michaelis was founded in 1532, and information concerning Pizarro's discoveries probably did not reach Europe until 1534. Europe has still many of the Ptolemaic features, as has also the continent of Asia. North America, which is rather better drawn than on any of the earlier maps, has the legend "Hispania Maior a Nu?o Gusma?o devicta anno 1530." The west coast becomes a very indefinite line at latitude 25 degrees north, at which point we read "Matonchel siue petra portus." It then sweeps northeastward in a flattened curve to "Baccalearum Regio" with its "Promōtoriū agricule seu cabo del labrador." From the land around the north pole, which is connected with Asia, the continent is separated by a narrow strait which is referred to as "Fretum arcticum siue trium fratrum, par quod lusitani in orientem et ad Indios et Moluccas nauigare conati sunt." "The Arctic strait or the strait of the three brothers through which the Portuguese attempted to sail to the East and to the Indies and the Moluccas." No general name is given to South America, but we find such regional names as "Nw Peru Provincia" and east of this "Bresilia." In the interior are such legends and local names as "Caxamalca fuit regis Atabaliape," "Cuzco," "Cincha," "Collao." The nomenclature shows decided Spanish influence, as we find "la laguna poblada," "R. de los esclavos," "R. d. los furmos," "Cabo corto."

Ruge further notes the finding in the same Gymnasium of Zerbst of a celestial globe on which appears the following legend, "Faciebant Gemma Frisius medicus ac mathematicus, Gaspar a Myrica & Gerardus Mercator Rupelmundanus anno a partu virgineo 1537." "Gemma Frisius physician and mathematician, Gaspar Myrica and Gerhard Mercator of Rupelmunde made this globe in the year 1537." A comparison of this legend with that of the terrestrial globe leads to the somewhat ingenious argument that the latter, though undated, is the older of the two. We know that Mercator was a pupil of Gemma Frisius,221 and that after leaving his university studies he found employment with the master in draughting maps and in the construction of mathematical instruments. In the dated legend of 1537 Mercator and Myrica appear to have advanced in importance, seeing that in the undated legend they are merely referred to as the engravers, while Frisius alone is mentioned as the maker of the map. Since this discovery we are better informed as to the source of Mercator's information which he gives in his map of 1538; the evidence being conclusive that in the main he followed the records of Frisius, adapting his map, however, to the double cordiform projection.222

Harrisse describes a gilded copper globe, belonging to the collection of the Bibliothèque Nationale, having a diameter of 14 cm. and bearing the author and date legend reading "Robertus de Bailly 1530."223 It is composed of two parts rather insecurely joined on the line of the equator, and is entirely without mountings. The engraving of the names, all in small capitals, has been remarkably well done. In outlining the contour of the New World the draughtsman of the map has been influenced by the Verrazanian data, and although exhibiting minor differences in details there is a striking resemblance to the map of Maiollo of 1527,224 to that of Verrazano of 1529,225 and to that of Ulpius of 1541.226 The region called by Maiollo "Francesca," by Verrazano "Verrazana sive Gallia nova," by Ulpius "Verrazana sive Nova Gallia," Robertus calls "Verrazana." In addition we find such names as "Terra Laboratoris," "Bachaliao," "La Florida," "Tenustitan," "Parias," "Mundus Novus," "America," "St. Crusis," "Terra Magellanica."

A second globe by Robertus de Bailly may be found in the library of Mr. J. P. Morgan of New York City (Fig. 52). This example, signed and dated "Robertus de Bailly 1530," and acquired a few years since, may be counted one of the finest metal globes of the period. None can be referred to which is in a better state of preservation, if we can accept its mounting as the original.227 In Rosenthal's catalogue No. 100 it is referred to as a "Verrazzano-Globus," which is clearly an error, if there was thought of ascribing it to Giovanni Verrazano, the explorer, or to his brother Hieronimus, the chart maker. The outlines of its map of the New World are clearly of Verrazanian origin (Fig. 53), which therefore give to it a particular interest and value.

Harrisse, in 1896, called attention to his discovery of two globes apparently of the early fourth decade of the sixteenth century.

The first of these he refers to as a gilded copper sphere about 12 cm. in diameter, and fashioned to contain the mechanism by means of which it is made to revolve. It is neither signed nor dated. At the extremity of the rod passing through the sphere is an arrangement apparently for attachment to a second piece of mechanism, probably a planetarium. It is surrounded by a disc on which the hours are engraved in Roman numerals. The geographical outlines are clearly of Verrazanian origin, representing the New World relatively long and narrow and having no Asiatic connection. With few exceptions the nomenclature is in the Latin language, but we read for instance "El pasaie de S. Michel" and "Rio de las Amazonas". The name "America" appears only on the southern continent, where we also find such legends as "Francisi Pizarri hoc m(onticu?) lo contra indos insignis victoria anno 1533," and off the coast of Peru "Ulterius incognitum."

The second of these globes is likewise of copper, having a diameter of 21 cm. and carries the inscription "Christoff Schiepp sculpsit. Augusta," which is placed around a cartouch especially designed for a representation of the coat of arms of the Welser family. This family, it will be remembered, figured conspicuously in connection with the German attempt at the colonization of Venezuela. The engraved title of the map is practically the same as that to be found on the Paris gilt globe and reads "Nova et integra universi orbis descriptio." It omits, however, the legend "Francesca" and "Verrazana sive nova Gallia," which fact may be due to its German origin. The nomenclature in Mexico and in South America is very detailed. The La Plata River, for example, as in the Gilt globe and in the Wooden globe, is called "Sinus Juliani"; the Pacific is called "Oceanus Magnus Gelanicus." The austral land is referred to as "Terra australis nuper inventa, sed nondum plene examinata."

Fig. 52. Terrestrial Globe of Robertas de Bailly, 1530. Nine of twelve gores exhibiting the map.

Fig. 53. Terrestrial Globe of Robertas de Bailly, 1530.

While the first of these globes is unmounted, Scheipp's globe is furnished with gilded meridian and horizon circle, the whole being supported by a dolphin on a plinth of ebony.

In the year 1533 Johann Sch?ner issued a small tract bearing the title 'Joannis Schoneri Carolostadii Opusculum Geographicum ex diversorum libris ac cartis summa cura & diligentia collectum, accomodatum ad recenter elaboratum ab eodem globum descriptiones terrenae.' 'A geographical tract of John Sch?ner of Carlstadt, extracted from various books and maps with much care and diligence and arranged for a recently elaborated globe, being a description of the earth.'228 This little book was dedicated to John Frederick of Saxony "Ex urbe Norica Id. Novembris Anno MDXXXIII." To it more than usual interest attaches. As the title states, it was issued as an explanatory text for a new globe,229 while in referring to the geography of the New World it clearly sets forth a reason for the changed notion concerning that geography, to which allusion has already been made,230 a change from a belief in the independent position of the new lands to a belief that these lands were but a part of the continent of Asia. With reference to this point Sch?ner says, "Unde longissimo tractu occidentem versus ab Hispani terra est, quae Mexico et Temistitan vocatur superiori India, quam priores vocavere Quinsay id est civitatem coeli eorum lingui." "By a very long circuit westward, starting from Spain, there is a land called Mexico and Temistitan in Upper India, which in former times was called Quinsay, that is the city of Heaven, in the language of the country." He adds the statement, "Americus tamen Vesputius maritima loca Indiae superioris ex Hispaniis navigio ad occidentem palustrans, eam partem que superiore Indiae est, credidit esse insulam, quam a suo nomine vocari institituit. Alii vero nunc recentiores Hydrographi eam terram ulterius ex alia parte invenerunt esse continentem Asiae nam sic etiam ad Moluccas insulas superioris Indiae pervenerunt." "Americus Vespuccius, sailing along the coasts of Upper India, from Spain to the west, thought that the said part which is connected with Upper India, was an island which he had caused to be called after his own name. But now other hydrographers of more recent date have found that that land (South America) and others beyond constitute a continent, which is Asia, and so they reached as far as the Molucca Islands in Upper India." A later passage in this tract is likewise interesting in this connection. After noting that America had been called the fourth part of the world he adds, "Modo vero per novissimas navigationes, factas anno post Christum 1519 per Magellanum ducem navium invictissimi Caesaris divi Caroli etc. versus Moluccas insulas, quas alii Moluquas vocant, in supremo oriente positas, eam terram invenerunt esse continentem superioris Indiae, quae pars est Asiae." "But very lately, thanks to the very recent navigations accomplished in the year 1519 A. C. by Magellan, the commander of the expedition of the invincible, the divine Charles etc. towards the Molucca Islands, which some call Maluquas which are situated in the extreme east, it has been ascertained that the said country (America) was the continent of Upper India, which is a part of Asia."

It seems very probable that the globe referred to in this tract is one of those (Figs. 54, 54a), bearing neither date nor name of maker, to be found in the Grand Ducal Library of Weimar.231 This conclusion, it may be stated, is based upon the fact of a striking agreement between the configurations on the globe and the descriptions to be found in Sch?ner's tract. The date 1534, which appears on the support, is doubtless of later origin than the globe itself, just as the date 1510 inscribed on the horizon circle of the Behaim globe is known not to indicate the year in which that work was completed. Wieser expresses the conviction that this globe is an improved reproduction of the one constructed in the year 1523, and he notes the interesting fact of its configurations resembling closely those of the Orontius Finaeus map of 1531, believing that it was the latter, however, who was the borrower.

Fig. 54. Sch?ner's Terrestrial Globe, 1533 (Probable).

Fig. 54a. Sch?ner's Celestial Globe, 1533 (Probable).

The Schiepp globe, referred to above, appears to have been constructed for a member of the Welser family, a rich patrician of South Germany. To Raymond Fugger, likewise a South German patrician, a member of a rich banker family of Augsburg, one Martin Furtembach dedicated a terrestrial globe which he had constructed in the year 1535.232 This date and the wording of the dedication we get from a record of the year 1565. "Viro Magnifico Dn. Raymundo Fuggero, Invictissimorum Caroli V. Imperatoris, Ferdinandi primi Regis Romanorum a Consilijs, prudentissimo, studiosorum Mecaenasi, pauperum Christi asylo cantatissimo, Martinus Furtenbachius Abusiacus, Astrophilus typum hunc Cosmographicum universalem composuit atque dedicavit Anno a nato Christo M.D.XXXV." "To the Magnificent Dn. Raymond Fugger, most competent counselor of the most invincible Prince Charles V Emperor, and Ferdinand the First King of the Romans, a Maecenas of scholars, a most provident supporter of the poor in Christ, Martin Furtembach lover of astronomy, composed and dedicated this universal cosmographical figure, in the year of Christ 1535." This globe, which we learn was taken from the Fugger castle of Kirchbay to the Vienna Imperial Library, in what year we do not know, seems to have disappeared some time after 1734, since, as Harrisse notes, no reference to it can be found after that date. It is described as a gilt copper ball of large size and an object of real art, being "ornamented on all sides with various figures of exquisite engraving, and is supported by a figure of Atlas with his right hand holding a compass, but with the rest of his body supported by his left hand, in a stooping posture."

In addition to the globes previously referred to as belonging to the Bibliothèque Nationale, there is one supposed to have been constructed about the year 1535. It is neither signed nor dated, but is usually referred to as the Paris Wooden globe.233 The diameter of the sphere is 20 cm. It is without the usual mountings of meridian and horizon circles but is supported by an iron rod attached to a wooden base (Fig. 55), which rod serves as an axis about which it may be revolved. A thick layer of paint covers the surface of the ball, on which the geographical names, legends, and configurations have been inscribed with a pen in a running hand. The poor calligraphy suggests that it is not the work of an expert cartographer, but of one who somewhat hastily and carelessly had undertaken to copy a globe map of the type represented in the work of Franciscus, of the maker of the Paris Gilt globe, or of Sch?ner in his globe of 1533. Meridians are represented at intervals of ten degrees commencing at a prime meridian which passes through the Cape Verde Islands, while the parallels are similarly marked, the graduation being indicated on the prime meridian. The globe maker has retained in his representations the old climatic idea, of which climates there are nine specifically designated. We find on this globe such inscriptions as "Baccalarum Regio," with its neighboring "Pelagus Baccalarum," "Terra Francesca," "Hispania Major," "Terra Florida," with the Gulf of Mexico bearing the name "M. Cathayum" as in the Nancy globe. The South American continent is conspicuously marked as "America Nova Orbis Pars," and contains in addition many regional names. The western ocean, beginning with that part which washes the coast of Mexico, thence southward, is called "Mare di Sur," "Mare Culuacanum," "Mare Indicum Australe," "Mare Pacificum," and "Oceanus Magellanicus." The location of the colony which was planted by Pizarro in 1532, and which is called "S. Michaelis," is made prominent.

Fig. 55. Paris Wooden Globe, 1535.

Caspar Vopel,234 born at Medebach near Cologne, in the year 1511, was of that group of German cartographers and globe makers active in the second quarter of the sixteenth century in giving to the general public a knowledge of the great geographical discoveries of the day. Though much of the information through the maps which they constructed was strikingly inaccurate, their work is none the less interesting to the student of historical geography. It appears that Vopel entered the University of Cologne in the year 1526, that at a later date he became a professor of mathematics in a Cologne gymnasium, and that he continued to reside in this city until his death in the year 1561. During these years he became well known as a maker of maps and globes. Of his very large and important world map, issued in the year 1558, and which so admirably sets forth his geographical notion of an Asiatic connection of the New World, an original copy may be found in the collection of Prince Liechtenstein, which is reproduced, after Giriva's redraughting, in Nordenski?ld's 'Facsimile Atlas.'235 In the history of cartography his map of Europe and his Rhine map especially merit a place of prominence.

Nine of his globes are known, most of which are constructed as armillary spheres, having within the numerous armillae or circles a small terrestrial globe, or at least that which passes as a representation of the same. His first work of which we have knowledge, now belonging to the city of Cologne, and to be found in the collection of its archives, is inscribed "Caspar Medebach opus hoc astronomicum fecit 1532 Martii." It is a credit to the youthful artist and cosmographer, suggesting, says Korth,236 the possession of a technic resembling that of Dürer. This is a celestial globe 28 cm. in diameter, having its star map drawn by hand, which is now somewhat discolored with age.

Four years later Vopel constructed a second celestial globe, apparently a reproduction of the first but having its map printed on gores which he pasted on the surface of the sphere. It bears the inscription "Caspar Vopel, Medebach, hanc Cosmogr. faciebat sphaeram Coloniae Ao 1536," has the same diameter as the one of 1532, and is now its companion in the city archives of Cologne.237

The National Museum of Washington possesses a fine example of Vopel's work (Fig. 9), concerning which Mr. Maynard, curator of Mechanical Technology, writes that "the globe in this Museum is an armillary sphere of eleven metal rings, 4? inches in diameter, with a very small globe in the center. The rings are elaborately inscribed with astronomical signs and scales, with names in Latin. On one of the rings is the inscription, 'Caspar Vopel, Artium Professor, Hanc Sphaeram Faciebat Colonia, 1541.'"238

In 1542 he constructed his first terrestrial globe, a copy of which is to be found in the Cologne archives.239 It has a diameter of 28 cm., its map gores, as in the case of the celestial globe of 1536, being printed from an engraved plate. Excepting the discoloration of age and a slight indentation near the north pole, it is well preserved. The title legend reads "Nova et integra universi orbis descriptio." "A new and complete description of the entire globe." A second legend, placed in the middle Atlantic, reads "Caspar Vopel Medebach geographicam sphaeram hanc faciebat Coloniae A. 1542." "Caspar Vopel of Medebach made this globe in 1542 at Cologne." His terrestrial map assures us of his acceptance of the idea that the American continent could be but an extension of the continent of Asia; that is, like his predecessor Sch?ner and others of the second quarter of the sixteenth century, referred to above, he had concluded after Magellan had found a termination of the newly found transatlantic region at the south, and no passageway from the Atlantic to the Pacific north of the equator had been found though search had frequently been made for the same, this country could therefore no longer be considered as an independent continent. The river "Cham," which on his map he made to empty into the Gulf of Mexico, he gives as the dividing line between "Hispania Nova" and "Cathay." There is striking evidence that Vopel was acquainted with Orontius Finaeus' map of 1531 or its source, as, for example, he writes across the great austral continent, "Terra Australis recenter inventa, sed nondum plene cognita," adding the words "Anno 1499," which also appear on the Paris Wooden globe of 1535.

In the Old Nordiske Museum of Copenhagen is an armillary sphere of Vopel, composed of eleven brass rings representing the equator, the ecliptic, the tropics, the polar circles, etc., within which is a small terrestrial globe, on the surface of which is a manuscript world map. Quad refers to this globe in the following words: "Item ein Astrolabium novum varium ac plenum das auff alle Landschafften (kann) dirigiert werden beide den Mathematicis unnd Medicis sehr nutz, in funffzehen St?ck und auff acht bogen gedruckt, darunder auch ein kleine artige Mappa Mundi ins runde gelegt ist."240

On the circle representing the Tropic of Cancer is engraved the legend "Caspar Vopell Medebach hanc sphaeram faciebat Coloniae 1543." "Caspar Vopel of Medebach made this globe in Cologne in the year 1543." On the bottom of the box in which the globe is kept is a modern label reading "Nocolaus Copernicus 1543 ... ty ... Brah." Copernicus died in the year designated, and Tycho Brahe was born in the year 1546. It appears, therefore, that this globe once belonged to the great Danish astronomer.

In the Library of Congress, acquired from L. Friedrichsen of Hamburg, is a fine example of the work of Vopel.241 This armillary sphere of eleven rings, encircling a terrestrial globe 7.2 cm. in diameter, is mounted on a copper base. On the circle representing the Tropic of Cancer is the inscription "Caspar Vopel artiv? profes. hanc sphaeram faciebat Coloniae 1543." "Caspar Vopel professor of arts made this globe in Cologne in the year 1543," while on the remaining circles are engraved numerous cosmographical signs and names. The terrestrial globe is covered with a manuscript map in colors, and bears the title legend "Nova ac generalis orbis descriptio," and the author legend "Caspar Vopel mathe. faciebat." Most of the regional names on the map are in red, and a red dot is employed to indicate the location of certain important cities, the names in general being omitted. The globe is remarkably well preserved (Fig. 56).

Fig. 56. Vopel Globe, 1543.

Fig. 56a. Western Hemisphere of Vopel Terrestrial Globe.

In the collection of Jodoco del Badia, state archivist of Florence, is a Vopel armillary sphere of the year 1544.242 The engraved inscription on the Tropic of Cancer reads "Caspar Vopel Me. Matem. hanc sphaeram faciebat coloniae 1544." Within the eleven armillae is a very small wooden sphere intended to represent a terrestrial globe of wood, about 3 cm. in diameter, on which the equator and the tropics are represented, but no geographical details of any value appear because of the small size of the ball.

A Vopel armillary sphere, apparently like the preceding, bearing the same date and legends, is reported as belonging to the city museum of Salzburg.243

A somewhat detailed description, by J. H. Graf, of a Vopel armillary sphere in the possession of the Herr Forstinspector Frey of Bern, appeared in the year 1894, in the Jahresbericht of the Geographical Society of Munich.244 It is composed of twelve instead of eleven armillae, and at the common center is a small terrestrial ball. The inscriptions appearing on each of the several rings are given by Graf, and the work of Vopel is compared with that of other map makers of the time. On circle 3, for example, counting from the outermost, is a citation from Ovid (Amores I. 6. 59), "Night, love, and wine are not counselors of moderation." On circle 5, which represents the Tropic of Cancer, is the author and date legend, reading "Caspar Vopellius Mathe. Profes. hanc sphaeram faciebat Coloniae 1545." On circle 7 we read "Fate rules the world, all stands secure according to unchangeable law, and the long lapse of time is marked by certain course." On one of the circles movable about the pole of the ecliptic is the inscription "The sun, called Helios, moves through the entire circle of the zodiac in 365 days and about 6 hours." Graf notes the striking similarity of this sphere to that belonging to the Old Nordiske Museum of Copenhagen, and adds to his paper a reproduction of the terrestrial globe map in plane projection.245 The feature common to all of the Vopel maps, viz., the connection of the New and the Old Worlds, is particularly emphasized. The name "America" appears only on South America, and rightly so, if at all, in keeping with his geographical ideas.

Günther reports that there may be found in the Hof- und Staatsbibliothek of Munich (Sig. Math. A 41, fol.), a volume of drawings and engravings once belonging to the Nürnberg mathematician, George Hartmann.246 In this collection there are two sets of celestial globe gores, the one containing nine, originally ten parts, dated February, 1535, the other containing ten undated parts. It is thought by Günther that we have here, in all probability, the earliest example of engraved celestial globe gores, a second example in date being that by Vopel of 1536, and referred to above.

In the year 1859 Mr. Buckingham Smith obtained in the city of Madrid an engraved copper globe of striking scientific value and interest. On the death of Mr. Smith this globe, now known as the Ulpius globe (Fig. 57), was purchased by Mr. John David Wolf and later was presented to the Library of the New York Historical Society, where it may now be found among that society's rich collection of historical treasures.247 It is of large size, having a diameter of 39 cm., rests upon an oak base, and measuring from the bottom of the base to the top of the iron cross which tips the north polar axis, its entire height is 111 cm. The hollow hemispheres of which the ball is composed are made to join at the line of the equator, the parts being held together by iron pins. In addition to its copper equatorial circle, which is neatly graduated and engraved with signs of the zodiac, it has a meridian and an hour circle of brass. On the surface of the globe itself the principal parallels are drawn, and meridians at intervals of thirty degrees, the line of the ecliptic being very prominent, and the boundary line proposed by Pope Alexander VI, marking a terminus for the claims of Spain and Portugal to newly discovered regions, is strikingly conspicuous, with its legend reaching from pole to pole, "Terminus Hispanis et Lusitanis ab Alexandro VI P. M. assignatus."248 "Limit to Spain and Portugal set by Pope Alexander VI."

Fig. 57. Terrestrial Globe of Euphrosynus Ulpius, 1541.

That a globe of such large dimensions, and of date so early, should come down to our day scarcely injured in the slightest degree, is a source of much delight to students of early cartography and of early discovery and exploration.

In a neat cartouch we read the following inscription: "Regiones orbis terrae quae aut aveterib traditae aut nostra patrūq memoria compertae sint. Euphrosynus Ulpius describebat anno salutis M.D.XLII." "Regions of the terrestrial globe which are handed down by the ancients or have been discovered in our memory or that of our fathers. Delineated by Euphrosynus Ulpius in the year of salvation 1542." The work is dedicated to "Marcello Cervino S. R. E. Presbitero Cardinali D. D. Rome," "Marcellus Cervino, Cardinal Presbyter and Doctor of Divinity of the Holy Roman Church, Rome,"249 the dedication being inscribed in a cartouch ornamented with wheat or barley heads, a device to be found in the coat of arms of the Cervino family, and with the deer which may be taken as an allusion to the name.

Not the least interesting feature of its geographical record in the New World is that wherein testimony is given to the voyage of Verrazano in the year 1524. The outline of the North American continent is strikingly like that given in the Verrazano map of 1529 (Fig. 58), showing an isthmus in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay, beyond which stretches a great unnamed sea to the west, called in some of the early maps the Sea of Verrazano. Ulpius attests the discovery in the following legend, "Verrazana sive Nova Gallia a Verrazano Florentino comperta anno Sal. M.D." "Verrazana or New France discovered by Verrazano a Florentine in the year of salvation 1500." The date in this legend is taken to be an incomplete rather than an erroneous record, the correct date being obtainable from the following legend appearing on the map of Hieronimus Verrazano, brother of the explorer, "Verrazana sive nova gallia quale discopri 5 anni fa giovanni di verrazano fiorentino per ordine et commandamento del Christianissimo re di francia." "Verrazana or New France discovered five years since by Giovanni Verrazano a Florentine by order and command of the Most Christian King of France."250 Ulpius must have made use of this Verrazano map in drawing the outline of North America, though he did not copy slavishly, as we find that he greatly improved on that map in the trend he has given the Atlantic coast line of North America, and in the numerous details he has inscribed. In very many of the Atlantic coast names, however, there is a practical agreement between those on the globe and those on the map.

Fig. 58. Western Hemisphere of Ulpius Globe, 1541.

To the continent of South America is given both the name "America" and "Mundus Novus," while numerous provincial names appear, as "Peru," "Bresilia," "Terra de giganti." The land areas of both the New and the Old World are liberally ornamented with representations of the local animal life, the traditional belief in the existence of cannibals in Mundus Novus being especially prominent. The oceans are made to abound in sea monsters, and vessels sail hither and thither over the courses then followed by navigators. Though South America has the entire coast line represented, that section stretching southward from Peru is marked as "terra incognita." Separated from the mainland by the Strait of Magellan, marked by the legend, "initium freti magellanici," is an extensive land area, that part lying to the southwest of the strait being called "Regio Patalis," that to the southeast as "Terra Australis adhuc incomperta," while from this particular region there stretches away to the east, as far as the meridian passing through the southern point of Africa, a peninsula across which is the legend "Lusitani ultra promotorium bone spei i Calicutium tendentes hanc terra viderut, veru non accesserunt, quamobrem neq nos certi quidq? afferre potuimus." "The Portuguese sailing beyond the Cape of Good Hope to Calicut, saw this land but did not reach it, wherefore neither have we been able to assert anything with certainty concerning it."

In the main Ptolemy served as a source of information for the regions of the East, although much of the information which the earlier years of the century had contributed to a knowledge of that far-away country is recorded.

The large size of the globe gave opportunity for the inscription of numerous geographical details, and of this opportunity the engraver fully availed himself. It may well be referred to as one of the most interesting of the early globes, and its map records as possessing great scientific value.

Tiraboschi alludes to a globe possessed by Cardinal Pietro Bembo (1470-1547), citing a letter written by Giacomo Faletti at Venice, June 3, 1561, to Alfonso II D'Este of Ferrara, in which mention is made of the same. "I have bought," says Faletti, "the globe of Cardinal Bembo for fifteen scudi which is the price of the metal composing it, and I have given it out to be decorated hoping to make of it the most beautiful globe which is possessed by any Prince in the world. It will cost altogether 25 scudi."251 This globe must have been made before the year 1547, in which year occurred the death of the cardinal. Fiorini expresses the opinion that it probably was owned by him while making his residence at Padua, when, free from care, he was giving himself to study and to the collection of scientific and artistic objects.252

One of Spain's distinguished chart makers of the middle of the sixteenth century was Alonso de Santa Cruz (1500-1572).253 Although but few of his cartographical productions are known, there is to be found in the survivals abundant evidence of his marked ability. We learn concerning him that by royal order of July 7, 1536, he was created cosmographer of the Casa de Contratacion at a salary of 30,000 maravedis, that in this capacity it was his duty to examine and pass upon sailing charts, that shortly after the above-named date he became Cosmografo Major, and that some time before his death, which occurred in the year 1572, Philip II appointed him to the office of Royal Historian.254 His best-known work is his 'Yslario general del mondo,' of which three signed manuscript copies are known, no one of which, however, appears to be complete. Two of these copies are to be found in the Royal Library of Vienna;255 the third, now belonging to the City Library of Besan?on, was at one time in the possession of Cardinal Granvella.256 The National Library of Madrid possesses a fine manuscript atlas, which has been generally attributed to Garcia Cespedes, since his name appears on the frontispiece, but which now is thought by those who have most carefully examined it to be the work of Santa Cruz. There are evidences that it has been somewhat altered in parts, which alterations may have been the work of Cespedes.257

In addition to his 'Yslario' we still have his remarkable map of the city of Mexico, belonging to the University Library of Upsala,258 and one copy of his world map in gores (Fig. 59), preserved in the Royal Library of Stockholm. It is this last-named map which especially interests us here.259

Fig. 59. Gore Map of Alonso de Santa Cruz, 1542.

Though the form of the map suggests that it had been the author's intention to paste it on the surface of a prepared sphere, there appears to be good reason for thinking that this particular copy was not intended to serve him in a terrestrial globe construction. It is surrounded with an ornamental border finely executed in gold and white, and stretching across the top is a waving scroll in which has been written the inscription "Nova verior et integra totius orbis descriptio nunc primum in lucem edita per Alfonsum de Sancta Cruz Caesaris Charoli V. archicosmographum. A.D. M.D.XLII." "A very new and complete description of the whole world now first prepared by Alfonso de Santa Cruz Cosmographer Major of the Emperor Charles V. 1542." The original map is drawn on three connected sheets of parchment, as Dahlgren states in his excellent monograph, the total dimensions of which are 79 by 144 cm. In the lower corner on the left is the dedication: "Potentiss. Caes. Carlo V. Usi sumus et hic ad terrae, marisque simul, demonstractionem, sectione alia, Augustiss. Caesar, per equinotialem lineam Polum quemque, dividui ipsius globi, singula medietas obtinens, depressoque utroque in planum Polo, equinotialem ipsam secantes, rationem prospectivam servavimus, quemadmodum et in alia, veluti solutis Polis, itidem in planum discisis meridianis propalavimus, neque pretermissis hic longitudinum latitudinumque graduum parallelorum climatumque dimensionibus. Vale." "O powerful Caesar! we have, here also in this map of land and sea, made use of a new division of the globe; namely, at the equator, so that each half of the globe thus divided has one of the poles as its center. By depressing the pole to the plane of the equator and by making incisions from the equator to the pole, we have made a projection similar to that presented to the public on the other map with detached poles and with the meridians separated on the same plane, without disregarding the correct dimensions of the longitude, latitudes, degrees, parallels, and climates. Farewell."

The map represents the world in two hemispheres, a northern and a southern, each drawn on thirty-six half gores or sectors. The following appears to have been the method of construction. With the poles as centers, and with a radius equal to one fourth of the length of a meridian circle of the globe he drew his large circle or circles representing the equator and forming the bases of each of the half gores. Each of the large or equatorial circles he divided into thirty-six equal arcs, and from the points establishing such divisions he drew a meridian line extending in each hemisphere to the pole or center of his circle. These meridian lines were graduated and lines or arcs representing parallels of latitude were drawn intersecting them at intervals of ten degrees, having the pole as the common center in each hemisphere. Marking off on each of these parallels or arcs both to right and left a distance representing five degrees of the earth's longitude, he thus established the points through which to draw his meridians which marked the boundaries of each sector, leaving between the sectors equal spaces to be cut away should the sectors be used for pasting on the surface of a sphere. Every fifth meridian and every tenth parallel is drawn in black; the equator, the tropics, the polar circles, and the prime meridian are gilded. The prime meridian runs somewhat to the west of the Island of Fayal. At longitude 20 degrees west is the papal line of demarcation which is called "Meridianus particionis," crossing South America south of the mouth of the Amazon. On the one side of this line in the southern hemisphere appears the flag of Spain, on the other that of Portugal, thus designating specifically the "Hemisperium Regis Castelle," and the "Hemisperium Regis Portugalie." California is referred to as "ya q? descubrio el marq's del valle," "island discovered by the Marquis del Valle," and the coast north of this point is called "ter?a q? cnbio(?) a descubrio dē anto d' mēdoca," "land to discover which Don Antonio de Mendoza sent out an expedition." In drawing the outlines of his continents he seems to have made use of the best available sources. The New World follows the Sevillan type, as represented in the Ribeiro maps, particularly the eastern or Atlantic coast regions, including, though in somewhat abbreviated form, the references to Gomez, Ayllon, and Narvaez. There is no distinct coast line north of California, which line follows the meridian of 105 degrees as far north as the Arctic circle, hence there is no positive representation of an Asiatic connection, but rather the indication of a doubt, as was indicated on maps of the type.

If Santa Cruz intended his peculiar gores to serve in the construction of a terrestrial globe, we cannot find that he impressed his method on the globe makers of the period. We seem to have but one striking imitation of his work, viz., in the gore map of Florianas, to which reference is made below.260

To that striking feature of many of the globe maps of the second quarter of the sixteenth century, in which an Asiatic connection of the New World is represented, attention has been called in the preceding pages; there likewise has been noted the fact that not a few of the map makers of the period expressed a certain degree of doubt as to whether the prevailing idea of the first quarter of the century (that the lands discovered in the west constituted a veritable New World) should be given over, preferring to omit altogether the west and northwest coast line of North America, or to make very indefinite allusion to the geography of the region.

We now come to the consideration of a map and globe maker who carries us back to the geographical notion of the earlier years of the century, namely, to the idea that the New World was nothing less than an independent continent. The activities of Gerhard Mercator (1512-1594) (Fig. 60) were epoch making, and a reference to him more detailed than has been accorded his predecessors is fitting.261 He was a native of Rupelmunde, a small town situated in the Pays de Waes in East Flanders, not far from the city of Antwerp. His parents died while he was still a mere lad, but in a great-uncle he found a faithful guardian and a generous benefactor, who took care that his education should be the best that was afforded by the schools of the Netherlands. In 1527, at the age of fifteen, he entered the College of Bois-le-Duc in Brabant, where he studied for three and one half years, and in 1530 he was matriculated as a student in the University of Louvain, famous throughout Europe at that early date as a center of learning.262 During his university career he appears to have given much thought to the problems of science, including the "origin, nature, and destiny" of the physical universe. While these studies did not bear directly upon that branch of science in which he was to win for himself such marked distinction in later years, they indicate the early existence of a desire for knowledge scientific rather than for knowledge theological, notwithstanding the fact that his guardian and patron was an ecclesiastic.

Fig. 60. Portraits of Gerhard Mercator and Jodocus Hondius.

In Gemma Frisius, an eminent professor of mathematics in the University of Louvain, and at one time a pupil of Apianus, he appears, as before noted, to have found a sympathetic friend and counselor.263 It probably was Frisius who suggested a career for the young scientist, since we find him, shortly after graduation, turning his attention to the manufacture of mathematical instruments, to the drawing, engraving, and coloring of maps and charts, wherein he found a vocation for the remainder of his life. In 1537 his first publication, a map of Palestine, appeared, to which he gave the title "Amplissima Terrae Sanctae descriptio."264 Immediately thereafter, at the instance of a certain Flemish merchant, he undertook the preparation of a map of Flanders, making for the same extensive original surveys. This map was issued in the year 1540.265 Mercator's first published map of the world bears the date 1538. This map was drawn in the double cordiform projection which seems first to have been employed by Orontius Finaeus in his world map of 1531.266 In this map Mercator departed from the geographical notions generally entertained at this particular period which made America an extension of Asia. He represented the continent of Asia separated from the continent of America by a narrow sea, an idea which increased in favor with geographers and cartographers long before actual discovery proved this to be a fact. This map is one to which great importance attaches, but it is not the first world map on which there was an attempt to fasten the name America upon both the northern and the southern continents of the New World, although it frequently has been referred to as such; this honor, so far as we at present know, belongs to a globe map referred to and briefly described above.267 His large map of Europe, the draughting of which appears to have claimed much of his time for a number of years, was published in the year 1554, and contributed greatly to his fame as a cartographer.268 In 1564 appeared his large map of England,269 and in the same year his map of Lorraine based upon his own original surveys.270 In the year 1569 a master work was issued, this being his nautical chart, "ad usum navigantium," as he said of it, based upon a new projection which he had invented.271 It is the original chart setting forth the Mercator projection which is now so extensively employed in map making. In the year 1578 he issued his revised edition of the so-called Ptolemy maps, and eight years later these same maps again, revised with the complete text of Ptolemy's work on geography. Mercator expressly stated it to be his purpose, in this last work, not to revise the text in order to make it conform to the most recent discoveries and geographical ideas, but the rather to have a text conforming, as nearly as possible, to Ptolemy's original work. This edition still ranks as one of the best which has ever been issued. His great work, usually referred to as his 'Atlas of Modern Geography,' the first part of which appeared in 1585, and a second part in 1590, was not completed during his lifetime, though but four months after his death, in the year 1594, Rumold Mercator published his father's collection of maps, adding a third part to those which previously had been issued. It was this publication which bore the title 'Atlas sive cosmographicae meditationes de fabrica mundi et fabricati figura.' Apparently for the first time the term "atlas" had here been employed for a collection of maps, a term which we know had its origin with Gerhard Mercator himself. A reference to his general cartographical work more detailed than the above cannot here find place. It is his globes which call for special consideration.

There is reason for thinking it was Nicolás Perrenot, father of Cardinal Granvella, who suggested to Mercator the construction of a globe; it at least was to this great Prime Minister of the Emperor Charles V that he dedicated his first work of this character, a terrestrial globe dated 1541.272 That Mercator had constructed such a globe had long been known through a reference in Ghymmius' biography, yet it had been thought, until 1868, that none of the copies of this work had come down to us. In that year there was offered for sale, in the city of Ghent, the library of M. Benoni-Verelst and among its treasures was a copy of Mercator's engraved globe gores of the year 1541, which were acquired by the Royal Library of Brussels, where they may still be found. Soon thereafter other copies of these gores, mounted and unmounted, came to light in Paris, in Vienna, in Weimar, in Nürnberg, and later yet other copies in Italy, until at present no less than twelve copies are known.

These gores were constructed to cover a sphere 41 cm. in diameter, and the map represents the entire world, with its seas, its continents, and its islands. The names of the various regions of the earth, of the several empires, and of the oceans are inscribed in Roman capital letters; the names of the kingdoms, of the provinces, of the rivers, are inscribed in cursive Italic letters, while for the names of the several peoples he employed a different form of letter. The gores, twelve in number, were engraved and printed in groups of threes (Fig. 61), each gore having an equatorial diameter of thirty degrees. Mercator worked out mathematically the problem dealing with the proper relation of the length of each of the gores to its width, or of its longer diameter to its shorter, in his endeavor to devise a map as nearly perfect as possible in shape for covering a ball, knowing full well the difficulty of fitting a flat surface to one that is curved. Each of the gores he truncated twenty degrees from the poles, and for the polar areas he prepared a circular section drawn according to the rule applicable to an equidistant polar projection. It appears, as before noted, that he was the first to apply this method in globe construction.

Fig. 61. Six of Twelve Terrestrial Globe Gores by Gerhard Mercator, 1541.

The ecliptic, the tropics, and the polar circles are represented at their proper intervals, with other parallels at intervals of ten degrees, and meridians at intervals of fifteen degrees. As in his double cordiform map of 1538, his prime meridian passes through the island of "Forte Ventura," one of the Fortunate Islands of the ancients, but which had long been known as the Canary Islands. To his globe map he added a feature of special value to seamen. From the numerous compass or wind roses, distributed with some regularity over its surface, he drew loxodromic lines, or curved lines cutting the meridians at equal angles.273 This feature could not have failed to win the approval of navigators, since they well knew that the previous attempts to represent these rhumbs as straight lines on maps drawn on a cylindrical projection, led to numerous errors in navigation. A second somewhat curious and interesting feature of his globe, a feature which I do not recall to have noticed in any other, is the representation in various localities on land and on sea of certain stars, his idea being that he could thus assist the traveler to orient himself at night. In his list of stars on his globe map, we find, for example, "Sinister humerus Bo?tes" near latitude 40 degrees north, longitude 210 degrees; "Corona septentrionalis" near latitude 29 degrees north, longitude 227 degrees; "Cauda Cygni" near latitude 44 degrees north, longitude 305 degrees; "Humerus Pegasus" near latitude 12 degrees north, longitude 340 degrees; "Crus Pegasi" near latitude 26 degrees north, longitude 339 degrees; six of the important stars in "Ursa Major," including "Stella Polaris," and in the present California, somewhat strangely prophetic, "Caput Draconis."

On the ninth gore, counting from the prime meridian eastward, is a legend giving the author's name, the date of issue, and a reference to the publication privilege, reading "Edebat Gerardus Mercator Rupelmundanus cum privilegio Ces Maiestatis ad an sex Lovanii an 1541." "Published by Gerard Mercator of Rupelmunde under the patent of His Imperial Majesty for six years at Louvain in the year 1541." In a corresponding position on the seventh gore is the dedication "Illustris: Dnō Nicolao Perrenoto Domino à Granvella Sac. Caesaree Mati à consiliis primo dedecat?." "Dedicated to the very distinguished Seigneur Nicholás Perrenot, Seigneur de Granvella; first counselor of His Imperial Majesty," over which is the coat of arms of the Prime Minister. On gore six we read "Ubi & quibus argumentis Lector ab aliorum descriverimus editione libellus noster indicabit." "Reader, where and in what subjects we have copied from the publications of other men will be pointed out in our booklet," in which there appears to be a reference to an intended publication wherein his globe was to be described and its uses indicated. No such work by Mercator is known to exist, although we find that in the year 1552 he issued a small pamphlet bearing the title 'Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum quae sunt in globo terrestri, caelesti et anulo astronomico. Ad invictissimum Romanum Imperatorus Carolum Quintum.' 'A presentation of the particular advantages of the terrestrial, celestial, and armillary spheres. Dedicated to the invincible Roman Emperor Charles Fifth.'274

He tells us in one of his legends how to find the distance between two places represented on the globe, observing, "Si quorum voles locorū distantiā cognoscere ... trāsferto, hic tibi, q? libet particula ?tercepta millaria referet, Hisp: 18, Gal: 20, Germ: 15, Milia pass; 60, Stadia 500," from which it appears that he gives as the value of an equatorial degree 60 Italian miles or 500 stadia, equivalent to 18 Spanish miles, to 20 French miles, and to 15 German miles. Finding numerous errors in Ptolemy's geography of the Old World, he tells us that he undertook to correct these errors from the accounts of Marco Polo, whom he calls "M. Paulo Veneto," and from the accounts of Vartema, whom he calls "Ludovico, Rom Patricii." Between parallels 50 degrees and 60 degrees south latitude and meridians 60 degrees and 70 degrees east longitude is the inscription "Psitacorum regio a Lusitanis anno 1500 ad millia passum bis mille praetervectis, sic appellata quod psitacos elat inaudite magnitudinis, ut qui ternos cubitos aequent longitudine." "Region of parrots discovered by the Portuguese in 1500 who sailed along 2000 miles; so called because it has parrots of unheard-of size, measuring three cubits in length." America, he notes, is called New India, "America a multis hodie Noua India dicta." In the Antarctic region an inscription tells of the notion entertained by many geographers of his day and by some in an earlier day, that in addition to the four known parts of the world, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, there is here a fifth part of large size stretching for a number of degrees from the pole, which region is called "terra Australe." Mercator undertook, in Chapter X of his 'Atlas,' to demonstrate that a large Antarctic continent must of necessity exist as a balance to the weight of the other four continents or parts of the world lying in the northern hemisphere.275

In 1551 he issued his copper engraved gores for a celestial globe, dedicating the same to Prince George of Austria, natural son of the Emperor Maximilian, who was Bishop of Brixen, Archbishop of Valencia, and Bishop of Liège in the year 1544. A set of these gores was likewise acquired by the Royal Library of Brussels at the same time it acquired the terrestrial globe gores referred to above.276 The dedication reads "Ampliss: Preculi Principiq? Illmo Georgio ab Austria Dei dispositione Episcopo Leodiensi, Duci Bullonensi, Marchioni Francimotensi, Comiti Lossensi &c? mecaenati optime merito dd. Gerardus Mercator Rupelmundanus." "To the Magnificent Protector and Prince, the very distinguished George of Austria, by the Grace of God, Bishop of Liège, Duke of Bouillon, Marquis of Francimontensi, Count of Lossensi, the very splendid patron of arts and science, dedicated by Gerard Mercator of Rupelmunde." Near the above inscription we find the date and place of issue given as follows, "Lovanii anno Domini 1551 mense Aprili," and a reference to his privilege "Inhibitum est ne quis hoc opus imitetur, aut alibi factum vendat, intra fines Imperii, vel provinciarum inferiorum Caes: Mt?is an: te decennium, sub poenis & mulctis in diplomatibus cotentis. Oberburger & Soete subscrib." "All persons are forbidden to reproduce this work or to sell it when made elsewhere within the Empire or the Low Countries of His Imperial Majesty until after ten years, under the penalties and fines prescribed in the patent. Signed by Oberburger and Soete." It clearly was the intention that this should serve as the companion of his terrestrial globe of 1541, described above, since the gores are of the same size, each of the twelve being truncated in the same manner, and the circular section being prepared for the polar areas. Mercator's merits as an astronomer by no means equaled his merits as a geographer. However, his celestial globe, by reason of the exactness of the composition, by reason of its simplicity, and by reason of the artistic skill exhibited in the workmanship, is a most worthy work of that great scientist. On this globe are represented the forty-eight constellations of Ptolemy, to which have been added three which he calls Antinous, Lepus and Cincinnus, the first formed of six stars and located on the equator below the constellation Aquila, the second in the southern hemisphere under the feet of Orion, and the third in the northern hemisphere near the tail of Ursa Major.277 His constellations, as well as the principal stars in the same, have, in the majority of instances, Greek, Latin, and Arabic names. It does not appear that Mercator felt himself bound to a strictly scientific representation and interpretation of the celestial bodies, for he pays more or less homage to astrology, inscribing on the horizon circle of his globe the horoscope as used by astrologists in calculating nativities, perhaps recognizing, from a business standpoint, the advantage of an appeal to certain superstitions which he found still lingering among both the learned and the unlearned.

By reason of their size and the great care with which they had been prepared, his globes must have found general favor, not only with those of rank and distinction, for whom copies de luxe were issued, but with geographers and scholars in general, who found it possible to obtain at a comparatively small price the more modest copies. That they found favor in Germany is assured us by Mercator's correspondence with Camerarius of Nürnberg, in which mention is made of the sale of six pairs of his globes in that city, and of others at the Frankfort book market.278 Thomas Blundeville tells us in his 'Exercises' that Mercator's globes were in common use in England until 1592,279 and the number of his globes which have become known since 1868 in various parts of Europe assure us that copies of that master's work must have been easily obtainable by those interested. Ruscelli, in referring to printed spheres; notes that they usually were made small, and that those of large size are not exact, but he adds that he had seen some that were three and one half palms in diameter, such as that which years ago Aurelio Porcelaga sent to him to examine, printed in Germany, and given to him by Monseigneur Granvella, to whom or to whose father, not recalling which, it had been dedicated, but which he remembered was very beautiful and very exact, being evidently engraved by one very expert, judged by the beauty of the design and the artistic quality of the letters.280 Fiorini is of the opinion that these globes were Mercator's, and that they were carried into Italy in the late years of the sixteenth century when a friendly relationship existed between certain Italian princes and the Spanish authorities then ruling in Flanders.281

Attention has been called above to the acquisition by the Royal Library of Brussels of a copy each of the terrestrial and the celestial globe gores, and that the discovery of the same having created an especial interest in his work, other examples were soon brought to light in Italy, in Spain, in France, in Germany, and in Austria. A pair may be found in the Muséum Astronomique of Paris, a pair in the Royal Library of Vienna, a pair in the Germanisches National Museum in Nürnberg, a pair in the archives of the town of St. Nicholas de Waes, a copy of the terrestrial globe in the Grand Ducal Library of Weimar, a copy of the celestial in the Convent of Adamont, Istria, and a copy of the terrestrial in the Convent of Stams, Tyrol. Dr. Buonanno, director of the Biblioteca Governativa of Cremona, in 1890 briefly described a pair of Mercator's globes belonging to that library, and what he was able to learn as a result of their damaged condition of Mercator's method of construction is not without interest. He found that over a framework composed of thin, narrow strips of wood had been pasted first a cloth covering, over this a thin layer of plaster and that to this was added a covering of a pastelike substance about six or seven millimeters in thickness, consisting of plaster, wood fiber, or sawdust, and glue. On this prepared surface had then been pasted the engraved gores. The learned librarian's conjecture as to the manner in which these globes found their way into Italy, if correct, is of interest, pointing as it does to the formation of a great art collection in that period. He recalls that Caesar Speciano, Bishop of Cremona, had been sent in 1592 as nuncio to Germany, and that he had occasion, during his mission, to attend to certain matters pertaining to the inheritance of William, Duke of Cleves, in whose country there must still have existed the workshop of Mercator. The opinion is expressed that on the return of the Bishop to Italy he carried with him many books and art objects, which had come into his hands either through purchase or through gift, and that the same passed into the possession of the Cremona Library, a library belonging to the Jesuits until the time of the suppression of that order.282

The Biblioteca Municipale of Urbania possesses a pair of Mercator's globes of 1541 and 1551, which are reported to be in a fair state of preservation. It is thought that they may have come into the library's collection through the last reigning member of the house, Duke Francesco Maria.

In the Museo Astronomico of Rome two copies of the terrestrial globe of 1541 may be found, and a copy of the celestial of the year 1551. These, it will be seen from the reproduction (Fig. 62), are not in a good state of preservation, although a very considerable portion of the map records can be read.

Fig. 62. Terrestrial Globe of Gerhard Mercator, 1541.

In addition to the globes of Mercator referred to above, it is known that after taking up his residence in Duisburg he constructed a small celestial globe of glass, on the surface of which he engraved with a diamond the several constellations, and that he likewise constructed a very small terrestrial globe of wood, apparently such as were later called pocket globes, having all geographical records given as accurately presented as on the larger globes.283

How great was the direct influence of Mercator on globe making activities, it may not be easy to trace, but the evidence seems to be conclusive, as Breusing has noted, that his should be counted the greatest, among those active within this field, for fifty years and more, following the issue of his first work in the year 1541. It is among the Italian globe makers, and those in the peninsula interested in such instruments, that we seem to find the first and most striking evidence of his influence, which will be noted in the following pages.

Giovanni Gianelli of Cremona is referred to, by certain early Italian writers, as a clock and globe maker of remarkable ability,284 the justice of which estimate is abundantly supported by the character of the one example of his handiwork extant, belonging to the Biblioteca Ambrosiana of Milan, to which it came from the collection of Canon Manfred Settàla about the middle of the seventeenth century. This is an armillary sphere of brass, the diameter of its largest or zodiacal circle being 14 cm. This circle is graduated and has engraved on its outer surface the names of the twelve constellations. It is likewise provided with a graduated equatorial circle, with polar circles and those representing the tropics. At the common center of the several rings is a small ball, 5 cm. in diameter, which is made to serve as a terrestrial globe. On one of the circles is the inscription "Janellus MDXLIX Mediolani fecit," and we further find inscribed the name "Hermetis Delphini," which perhaps tells us of a one-time possessor. In a volume describing the museum of Canon Settàla, and issued in the year 1666, Gianelli and his work are thus referred to:

"To that great man Gianelli of Cremona there is due great honor, whose personal qualities made him an especial favorite of His Catholic Majesty Philip II. Among the many globes which he constructed our museum possesses one of surpassing excellence, in that it exhibits, in addition to other movements, that which astrologers call the movement of trepidation, and which movement was set forth in theory by Thebit."285

The Emperor Charles V, when in Pavia, we are told, had his attention directed to an armillary sphere constructed by Dondi in the fourteenth century. On finding this sphere much injured by rust and usage he called upon Giovanni Gianelli to restore it, but it was reported to be beyond repair. Thereupon the Emperor gave direction to have the sphere reproduced, which, when completed, was carried by His Majesty to Spain. No trace of this work by Gianelli can now be found.

Girolamo Fracastoro, a distinguished Italian physician, a famous man of letters, and a great philosopher of the first half of the sixteenth century, was also a skilful globe maker, as we learn from Ramusio,286 and from the sketch of his life which usually appears as an introduction to his collected works.287

Vasari also gives us certain information concerning him, noting that he assisted Francesco dai Libri in the construction of his large globe,288 and we are led to believe that he was often consulted as an expert by globe makers of his day. While none of those he may have constructed are extant, what is known of his interest in these aids to geographical and astronomical studies entitles him here to a word of reference.

Ramusio says289 that on the occasion of a visit, with the architect Michele S. Micheli, to the home of their common friend, Girolamo Fracastoro, at Caffi, they found him in the company of a gentleman, a very distinguished philosopher and mathematician, who was showing him an instrument based on a newly found movement of the heavens; that after they had considered for some time this new movement, they had brought before them a large and very detailed globe of the entire world, and about this the distinguished gentleman began to speak. Fiorini argues, somewhat ingeniously, that this globe may have been one constructed by Mercator in 1541, if not one by Libri, in the making of which Fracastoro himself had assisted. The letters of Fracastoro assure us that he made use of globes in his geographical and astronomical studies, and that his friends did likewise. January 25, 1533, he wrote Ramusio, "If you should chance to speak to that master who made your metal spheres, I should like you to ascertain how much a simple but perfect one, one foot in diameter, would cost." Writing again to Ramusio January 10, 1534, concerning the "Southern Cross," he adds: "Just reflect a little, and if you have not sent away the celestial globe, look at that Centaurus and you will find all that I am writing to you. You might perhaps write about these doubts to Mr. Oviedo, or perhaps I might; it would be a good idea and we might ask him about the very prominent star in the right foot to ascertain whether it is a separate star or is one of those in the 'Southern Cross.'" On the twenty-fifth of January, 1548, he again wrote to Ramusio: "On my globe Zeilan is just below the Cape of Calicut, on the equinoctial line, and it may be that which Jambolo discovered was Zeilan or Taprobana; I am inclined to believe it was Taprobana." His letter of May 10, 1549, also to Ramusio, is of special interest, indicating, as it does, his estimate of the value of terrestrial and celestial globes in the study of astrology (astronomy) and geography. "In regard to what you write me about M. Paolo, I thoroughly approve of his taking up the sacred study of astrology and geography, subjects of study for every learned gentleman and nobleman, as he would have as his guide and teacher the very well-known Piedmontese to whom we owe so many excellent things, but first I should advise you to have M. Paolo construct two solid spheres. On one of these should be represented all the celestial constellations, and the circles should all have their place, that is to say, not as Ptolemy represents the stars as they were located in his time, but according to the investigations of our own times, that is, about twenty degrees further east. The other should be a terrestrial globe constructed according to modern ideas, which he should always follow in his studies. He will use the first globe for a thousand and one things; it will be his guide by day and by night, and by making use of the quadrant he will be able easily to locate the things to be seen in the heavens. Then when he shall have been well started I want that you should have him read that little book of mine on homocentricity, wherein he will be able to learn what astrology is, but for the present let him learn ordinary astrology which has been treated in so barbarous a manner as to lose much of its dignity." Writing again from Verona January 21, 1550, to Paolo, after telling him what he should point out to his father, he says: "You will tell him also that M. Michele di San Michele has seen my globe and that he likes it.... When I come I will make note of the principal places, for I desire very much to verify them with the report of navigators telling what they have found, concerning which matter, I think, no one knows more than you do, or especially your distinguished father. As to the celestial sphere, I should like very much to compare one I have with the one your father is having made, that I may learn how the constellations compare, and how many more of the fixed stars have been inserted. I have changed their position twenty degrees. Whether he agrees with me or not I do not know."

NOTES

198 Harrisse. Discovery, p. 247.

199 This is clearly recorded in such important maps as the Cantino, Canerio, Waldseemüller, Schōner globe maps of 1515 and 1520, Boulengier gores, Liechtenstein gores, et al.

200 Wieser, F. R. v. Die Karte des Bartolomeo Columbo über die vierte Reise des Admirals. Innsbruck, 1893.

201 See above, p. 88.

202 A letter written by Maximilianus Transylvanus to the Cardinal of Salzburg, dated Valladolid, October, 1522, and published in Cologne in January, 1523, under the title 'De Molucca insulis ...,' gave the first printed notice of Magellan's voyage. See Harrisse. B. A. V. Nos. 122, 123, 124. There are numerous editions of Antonio Pigafetta's account of the Magellan voyage, which account is the principal original source of information concerning that eventful circumnavigation. See J. A. Robertson (Ed.), Pigafetta, Antonio. Magellan's Voyage around the World.

203 MacNutt, F. A. Letters of Cortes to Charles V. New York, 1908. This English edition of the letters of Cortes contains a brief biographical sketch with valuable notes. Cortes, to the last, appears to have believed in the existence of a strait through which one might find a shorter way from Spain to the Indies of the East than was hitherto known. Sanuto Livio. Geographia distincta. Venitia, 1588. Argument against the idea of an Asiatic connection is advanced by Sanuto on the ground that the natives were frightened at Cortes's horses. Asiatics were acquainted with the horse.

204 Estevan Gomes, who had sailed with Magellan, undertook in 1524, under a royal commission, "the search for a new route leading to Cathay between the land of Florida and the Baccalaos," says Peter Martyr. Decad VI, lib. x.

205 In this volume, verso of seventh leaf, Franciscus states that in attempting to prepare his description of a globe, he had collected all the maps of the world he could find. He especially commends one attributed to Maximilianus Transylvanus, and although constructed with much skill, he could not agree with its geographical representations, admitting, however, that many did accept the same, but objecting to the separation of Calvacania (Mexico) from the eastern country because he believed it to be joined to the kingdom of the Great Khan. See Harrisse. Discovery. pp. 281, 548.

206 Stevenson. Maps illustrating early discovery. No. 10 of this series is a reproduction of Maiollo's map in the size and in the colors of the original.

207 Harrisse. Discovery. p. 546.

208 Gallois, L. De Orontio Finaeo. Paris, 1890.

209 Hakluyt, R. Discourse on Western Planting. Ed. by Charles Deane, with introduction by Leonard Wood. (In: Maine Historical Society, Collections, second series, ii, and printed as Documentary History of the State of Maine. Vol. II. Cambridge, 1877. Chap. XVII, §11, p. 116.)

In chapter 10 of the Discourse Hakluyt refers to the Locke map and its configurations, which map clearly is a modified reproduction of Verrazano's map of 1529.

210 Harrisse. Discovery. pp. 562-568.

211 Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas. p. 89. The author reproduces the Finaeus map from a 1566 reprint, observing that he was unable to locate a copy of the 1536 edition.

212 Schefer, C. H. A. Le discours de la navigation de Jean et Raoul Parmentier. Paris, 1883. p. ix. The citation is from a contemporary source.

213 Vasari, G. Lives of the painters. Tr. by Mrs. J. Foster. London, 1850-1885. (In: Bohn Library, Vol. III, pp. 449-450.)

214 Blau, M. Mémoires de la Société Royal de Nancy. Nancy, 1836. pp. xi-xiv, 107. An excellent reproduction of the globe in hemispheres accompanies this article; Vincent, R. P. Histoire de l'ancienne image miraculeuse de N?tre-Dame de Sion. Nancy, 1698. This work contains the first description of the globe; De Costa, B. F. The Nancy Globe. (In: The Magazine of American History. New York, 1881. pp. 183-187.) A representation of the globe in hemispheres is presented with this article, being a slightly reduced copy of the Blau illustration; Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas. p. 82; same, Periplus, p. 159; Winsor. Narrative and Critical History. Vol. II, p. 433, also Vol. III, p. 214; Compt-Rendu, Congrès des Americanistes. Paris, 1877. p. 359.

215 The probability is it was not originally constructed for this purpose, although globe goblets were not uncommon in this century. See below, p. 199.

216 Quetelet, L. A. J. Histoire des sciences mathématiques et physiques chez les Belges. Brussel, 1871, pp. 78 ff.; Ruscelli, G. La Geografia di Claudio Tolomeo. p. 32, there is reference to a "Globo, grande"; K?stner, Vol. II, pp. 579 ff.; Breusing, A. Leitfaden durch das Wiegenalter der Kartographie bis zum Jahre 1600. Frankfurt, 1883. p. 32.

217 This book appears to be one of the earliest works treating of the scientific construction of globes, and of the use of trigonometry in the preparation of the globe gores.

218 The representation closely resembles that given by Sch?ner. See Fig. 54.

219 Ruge, W. Ein Globus von Gemma Frisius. (In: Internationaler Amerikanisten-Kongress, vierzehnte Tagung. Stuttgart, 1904. pp. 3-10.)

220 See below, p. 128, for the novelty introduced by Mercator, in which he truncated the gores near the poles.

221 Raemdonck, J. van. Gérard Mercator, sa vie et ses oeuvres. St. Nicolas, 1869. p. 38.

222 Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas, pp. 87-90. On map projection in general, see Wagner, H. Lehrbuch, der Geographie. Leipzig, 1903. Chap. iv; Zondervan, H. Allgemeine Kartenkunde. Leipzig, 1901. Chap. iii. See also references below to Mercator's world map of the year 1538, p. 125.

223 Harrisse, H. Un nouveau globe Verrazanien. (In: Revue de Géographie. Paris, 1895. pp. 175-177.) An extensive Verrazanian bibliography may be found in Phillips, P. L. Descriptive list of maps of Spanish possessions in the United States. Washington, 1912. pp. 39-40.

224 See Stevenson reproduction, n. 9, above.

225 See Stevenson reproduction, n. 9, above.

226 See references to Ulpius below, p. 117.

227 Compare this mounting with that of Sch?ner as seen in Fig. 26.

228 This is a tract of 44 pages.

229 Sch?ner, J. Opera Mathematica. Norimbergae, 1551. See p. 127 for what has been thought to be a representation of Sch?ner's terrestrial and celestial globes of 1533. It will be noted that the maps in each of these globe pictures have been reversed.

230 See above, p. 96.

231 Wieser. Magalhaes-Strasse. p. 76, and Tab. V, which is a copy of the southern hemisphere; Harrisse. Discovery. pp. 592-594, and pl. XVII, which is a copy of the western hemisphere; Santarem, V. de. Notice sur plusieurs monuments géographiques inedits.... (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie. Paris, 1847. p. 322.); Stevens, H. Notes. New Haven, 1869. p. 19; Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas, pp. 80, 83; Winsor. Narrative and Critical History. Vol. VIII, p. 388.

232 Harrisse. Discovery. p. 610.

233 Harrisse. Discovery. p. 613, and pl. XXII, which is a representation of the western hemisphere.

234 Michow, H. Caspar Vopell ein K?lner Kartenzeichner des 16 Jahrhunderts mit 2 Tafeln und 4 Figuren. (In: Hamburgische Festschrift zur Erinnerung an die Entdeckung von Amerika. Hamburg, 1892. Vol. I, pt. 4.); Graf, J. H. Ein Astrolabium mit Erdkugel aus dem Jahre 1545, von Kaspar Volpellius. (In: Jahresbericht d. Geographischen Gesellschaft zu München. 15 Heft, p. 228); Nordenski?ld, op. cit., p. 83, and pl. XL, which gives a representation of the globe of 1543, twelve gores in colors; Merlo, J. J. Nachrichten vom Leben und den Werken K?lner Künstler, K?ln, 1850. p. 493.

235 Nordenski?ld, op. cit., pl. XLV.

236 Korth, L. Die K?lner Globen des Kaspar Vopelius. (In: Globus. Braunschweig, 1883. Vol. XLIV, pp. 62-63.)

237 Described briefly by Michow, op. cit., p. 12.

238 Letter of August 12, 1913.

239 Described briefly by Michow, op. cit., p. 13.

240 Described by Michow, op. cit., p. 14. Michow cites a letter written by Postell to Abr. Ortelius, April 9, 1567, in which the accusation is made against Vopel that merely to please the Emperor Charles V he had joined America and Asia in his globe map. In this letter the New World is called Atlantis.

241 Such globes, it will be noted, represent the Ptolemaic system.

242 Fiorini. Sfere terrestri e celesti. p. 214.

243 Wieser, F. R. v. A. E. Nordenski?ld's Facsimile Atlas. (In: Petermanns Geographischen Mitteilungen. Gotha, 1890. p. 275.)

244 Graf, op. cit., n. 37.

245 Compare with that reproduced by Nordenski?ld, n. 38 above.

246 Günther. Erd- und Himmelsgloben. p. 57; Doppelmayr, op. cit., p. 56. Hartmann was a noted manufacturer of globes and mathematical instruments in Nürnberg. In his youth he spent several years in Italy, probably in Venice.

247 De Costa, B. F. The Globe of Ulpius. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1879. pp. 17-35.) Accompanying the article is a re-draughted representation of the western hemisphere; same author. Verrazano the Explorer. New York, 1881. (In: Magazine of American History. New York, 1881. p. 64.); Winsor, op. cit., Vol. III, p. 214; Harrisse, H. Notes sur la Nouvelle France. Paris, 1872. p. 222; Murphy, H. C. Inquiry into the authenticity of Verrazano's claims. New York, 1903. p. 114.

248 Thatcher, J. B. Christopher Columbus. New York, 1903. Vol. II, pp. 93-209. In these pages may be found a critical consideration of questions relating to the subject of the Line of Demarcation. Linden, H. V. Alexander VI and the demarcation of the maritime and colonial domains of Spain and Portugal, 1493-1494. (In: American Historical Review. 1916. pp. 1-21.)

249 Polidori, P. De vita gestis et moribus Marceli II, Pontificis Maximi commentarius. Romae, 1744; Cordella, L. Memorie storiche dei Cardinali della Sancta Romana Chiesa. Roma, 1792. Vol. IV, p. 225.

Marcello Cervino was born in the year 1501. For his attainments in the field of literature, Italian, Latin, and Greek, in philosophy, jurisprudence, and mathematics he held a place of great distinction among his contemporaries. In the year 1539 he was made a cardinal prefect of the Vatican, and the year 1555 he was elevated to the Papacy, but died twenty-one days thereafter.

250 Hall, E. H. Giovanni da Verrazano and his Discoveries in North America. (In: Fifteenth Annual Report of the American Scenic and Historical Preservation Society. New York, 1910.)

There is an extensive Verrazano literature. The original letter written by the explorer to Francis I of France, under whose auspices he had sailed on his voyage of discovery in the year 1524, seems to have been lost, but copies of the same, it may have been with alterations, were sent to Verrazano's relatives and friends in Italy. Ramusio, in the year 1556, and Hakluyt, in the year 1582, published one of these copies, and it has since been frequently printed.

In addition to the above, there exists a manuscript copy, sometimes referred to as the Florentine or Magliabechian codex, a fragmentary copy in the Academy of Cimento, and a manuscript copy recently discovered, which from the name of its present owner may be called the Cellere codex. Hall has printed the original document and has given an excellent translation of the same.

251 Tiraboschi. Storia. Tom. VII, pt. i, p. 205.

252 Fiorini, op. cit., p. 117.

253 Navarrete, M. F. de. Noticia biografia de Alonso de Santa Cruz. Madrid, 1835. Reprinted in his Opúsculos. Tom. II; Nicolao, A. Biblioteca Hispana. Romae, 1672. Tom, I, p. 37; Harrisse. Discovery, p. 736; also in his Jean et Sébastian Cabot, p. 173; Espada, J. de la. Relaciones geograficas de Indias, publicalas el Ministerio de Fomento Perú. Madrid, 1885. Tom. II, p. xxi; pp. xxx-xxxvi.

In the second reference is a reprint of an inventory, made at the time of the death of Santa Cruz, of his collection of maps, pictures, and manuscripts and especially referred to in the receipt given by Juan Lopez, his successor as Royal Cosmographer, mention being made of no less than eighty-seven items.

254 He seems to have produced nothing of special importance in his capacity as "Historicus Regius," giving, however, some attention to the subjects of heraldry, and genealogy. The question of the determination of longitude interested him, and there is still preserved, in the Royal Library of Madrid, his manuscript bearing the title "Libro de las longitudes y manera que hasta ago se ha tenido en el arte de navegar con sus demonstraciones y examplos." At the time of his death there was also left a paper in manuscript, treating of the subject of longitude, which probably contains a summary of suggestions made to the Junta in Sevilla in the year 1536 "sobre la orden que se ha tenido en el dar de la longitud."

255 Wieser, F. R. v. Die Karten von Amerika in den Islario General des Alonso de Santa Cruz Cosmografo Mayor des Kaisers Karl V, mit der spanischen original Texte und einer Kritischen Einleitung. Innsbruck, 1908. This work was reviewed by Stevenson, E. L. (In: American Historical Review. 1910. pp. 392-394.)

256 Catalogue Général des Manuscrits des Bibliothèques Publiques de France. Department Tom. XXXII. Paris, 1897. p. 399; Harrisse. Discovery. p. 621.

257 Schuller, R. R. Arcerca del "Yslario General" de Alonso de Santa Cruz. London, 1913. (In: Proceedings of the XVIII Session of the International Congress of Americanists. London, 1913. Vol. II, pp. 415-432.); Islario general de todas las islas del mundo dirigido á la S. C. R. M. del rey don Phelipe miestro Se?or por Alo de Santa Cruz su cosmographo mayor, con grabados en el texto y varias láminas. (In: Boletin de la Sociedad Geografica de Madrid. Madrid, 1918, 1919.)

258 Harrisse. Discovery. p. 624; Nordenski?ld, Facsimile Atlas, p. 109, gives an excellent reproduction of this map.

259 Dahlgren, E. W. Map of the World by Alonzo de Santa Cruz, 1542. Stockholm, 1892. Dahlgren has given us an excellent facsimile of this map, with critical text including a summary of the work of Santa Cruz and a list of the names on the map.

260 See p. 150.

261 Raemdonck, J. v. Gérard Mercator, sa vie et ses oeuvres. St. Nicolas, 1869; Wauvermans, H. E. Histoire de l'école cartographique belge et anveroise au XVI siècle. Anvers, 1895. Vol. II, pp. 37-109; 174-213; Breusing, A. Gerhard Kremer, genannt Mercator, der deutsche Geograph. Duisbourg, 1869; Raemdonck, J. van. Gérard de Cremer ou Mercator, Géographe Flamand. Réponse à la Conférence du Dr. Breusing, tenue à Duisbourg le 30 mars, 1869. St. Nicolas, 1870; Hall, E. H. Gérard Mercator, his Life and Work. New York, 1878. pp. 163-196.

262 The University Library is reported to have possessed many of the original Mercator manuscripts. One cannot at present tell the fate of these manuscripts. They may have been destroyed at the time of the recent German invasion, or have been carried away with other material by the booty-loving invaders.

263 See p. 102.

264 Raemdonck, J. v. La Géographie ancienne de la Palestine. Lettre de Gérard Mercator, mai 22, 1567. St. Nicolas, 1884. This map of Palestine, published in large folio size, was dedicated to Fran?ois Craneveld, Counseiller to the Grand-Conseil of Malines, and published at Louvain in the year 1537. A copy of this cannot now be located.

265 Raemdonck, J. v. De groote kaart van Vlaanderen vervaardidg in 1540 door G. Mercator, bij middel van lichtdruk weergeg. naar het ex. behoorende aan het Museum Plantin-Moretus ... en voorzien met eens verklarende inleiding. Antwerp, 1882. This map, in four sheets, measuring 110 by 80.6 cm., was dedicated to Charles V and published at Louvain.

266 Raemdonck, J. v. Orbis Imago. Mappemonde de Gérard Mercator. St. Nicolas, 1882. (In: Annales du Cercle Archéologique du Pays de Waes. St. Nicolas, 1882. Tom. X, 4me Livr.)

On the title-page of a separate of this article we read "Notice publiée à l'occasion de la reproduction par la phototypie du seul exemplaire connu de la susdite mappemonde conserve par la Société de géographie d'Amérique, à New-York, reproduction due à la sollicitude éclairée et généreuse de cette même société." "Seul exemplaire connu" is not correct. A fine example of the original 1538 edition may be found in the New York Public Library.

In addition to the reproduction prepared by The American Geographical Society a fine facsimile may be found in Nordenski?ld. Facsimile Atlas. pl. XLIII; also by Lafrere about 1560.

A comparison with the Orontius Finaeus double cordiform map of the year 1531 is interesting. It has been stated that Mercator copied the work of Finaeus. The projections appear to be practically identical, but it will be noted that Mercator represents the New World as independent of the Old World, whereas Finaeus represents the Asiatic connection. Fiorini, M. Le projezioni cordiformi nella cartografia. Rome, 1889. (In: Boll. della Societa Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1889.)

267 See p. 76.

268 Heyer, A. Drei Mercatorkarten in der Breslauer Stadtbibliothek. (In: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Geographie. Weimar, 1890. pp. 379-389; 474-487; 507-528.); Drei Karten von Gerhard Mercator, Europa, Britische Inseln, Weltkarte. Facsimile-Lichtdruck nach den Originalen der Stadtbibliothek zu Breslau. Herausgegeben von der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin. 41 Tafeln. Berlin, 1891. With title "Europae descriptio."

The map of Europe in six sheets, four of which were engraved at Louvain and two at Duisbourg, was dedicated to Antoine Perrenot, Bishop of Arras, and published at Duisbourg in the year 1554. The only original example now known is that belonging to the Breslau Library.

269 This map with title "Britannicarum insularum descriptio" was published at Duisbourg in the year 1564. Reproduction of the only known original example noted in n. 71.

270 This was prepared with great care and offered in person by Mercator to Duke Charles of Lorraine at Nancy. Apparently no original copy is in existence.

271 Raemdonck. Orbis Imago; Breusing, A. Das Verebnen der Kugeloberfl?che. Bremen, 1893. pp. 31-48; Steinhauser, A. Stabius redivivus, eine Reliquie aus dem 16 Jahrhundert. (In: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Geographie. Wien, 1885. pp. 289-291.); D'Avezac, M. A. P. de. Coup d'oeil historique sur la projection des cartes de géographie. Paris, 1875. (In: Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de Paris. Paris, 1865. Tom. V.); Wright, E. The correction of certain errors in navigation. London, 1599.

There may be found numerous references to the principle underlying the Mercator projection. See in addition to above references Wagner, op. cit.; Zondervand, op. cit.; Hall, op. cit., each with noted citations.

This map, with title "Nova et aucta orbis terrae descriptio ad usum navigantium emendate accommodata," was dedicated to Duke William of Cleves, and was published at Duisbourg in the year 1569. Original copies may be found in the Bibliothèque Nationale, and in the Stadtbibliothek of Breslau, the former reproduced by Jomard, the latter as noted in n. 71. A long inscription on the map explains the principle of the new projection and its use for navigation.

272 Raemdonck, J. van. Les sphères terrestre et céleste de Gérard Mercator (1541-1551). Notice publiée a l'occasion de la reproduction de ces sphères a l'aide de facsimilé de leurs fuseaux origineaux, gravés par Mercator et conservés a la Bibliothèque Royale a Bruxelles. St. Nicolas, 1875; Fiorini M. Globi di Gerardo Mercatore in Italia. Rome, 1890. (In: Bollitino della Societe Geografica Italiana. Roma, 1890.); Breusing. Gerhard Kremer, p. 9. Gérard Mercator, p. 9.

This author writes: "Auch seine mechanischen Arbeiten hatten bei den M?nnern der Wissenschaft eine so günstige Aufnahme gefunden, dass er dadurch ermutigt wurde, sich an ein gr?sseres Werk, einen Erdglobus, zu machen, den er nach anderthalbj?hriger Arbeit im Jahre 1541 vollendete und dem kaiserlichen Geheimrate und Reichssiegelbewahrer Granvella widmete. Und wenn Ruscelli uns erz?hle, er habe mit Staunen einen herrlichen Globus von drei und halben Palme im Durchmesser betrachten müssen, der von deutscher Arbeit und Granvella gewidmet gewesen sei und an Sch?nheit der Zeichnung und Schrift alles früher Geleistete übertreffe, so ist wohl kaum ein Zweifel, dass dies der fragliche Globus Mercators gewesen ist. Ich will hier gleich hinzufügen, dass im ganzen XVI Jahrhundert, wenn von ausgezeichneten Globen die Rede ist, diejenigen Mercators immer als die besten genannt werden."

273 Günther, S. Geschichte der loxodromischen Kurve. Halle, 1879. (In: Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie. Halle, 1879. Heft 6.); Grünert, J. A. Loxodromische Trigonometrie. Leipzig, 1869; Hues, R. Tractatus de globis; Markham, Ed. See pp. 127-147.

274 This was edited by Van Raemdonck and published at St. Nicolas, 1888.

275 Ghymmius, op. cit. Caput decimum, Gerardi Mercatoris De mundi creatione ac fabrica; Raynaud, A. Le Continent Austral, hypothèses et découvertes. Paris, 1893; Wieser, Magalhaes-Strasse, Chap. VI, with references.

276 See references in n. 75.

277 Baily, F. The Catalogues of Ptolemy, Ulug Beigh, Tycho Brahe, Halley, Hevelius, deduced from the best authorities. London, 1843. Consult for lists of the several constellations.

278 See a reference to the sale of Mercator globes. (In: Zeitschrift für Wissenschaftliche Geographie, I Jahrgang, p. 180.)

279 Blundeville, T. Exercises, pp. 204-243.

280 Ruscelli, op. cit., Cap. IV.

281 Fiorini. Sfere terrestre et celeste, p. 144.

282 Fiorini. Sfere, etc. p. 140.

283 Mercator, G. Declaratio insigniorum utilitatum. St. Nicolas, 1888. Ed. by Raemdonck, J. v.

284 Sacco, B. De italicarum rerum varietate et elegantia. Papiae, 1565, lib. x, fol. 76.

285 Thebit, an Arabic astronomer, to whom reference is here made, lived in the latter part of the ninth century. He was chiefly distinguished for his revision of the 'Almagest.'

286 Ramusio, G. B. Navigationi et Viaggi. Vol. III.

287 Hieronymi Fracastorii Veronensis opera omnia. The biography is thought to have been written by Adamo Fumano.

288 See above, p. 100.

289 Ramusio, op. cit., Vol. I.

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